Evaluation of horn bud wound healing following cautery disbudding of preweaned dairy calves treated with aluminum-based aerosol bandage.

Pain management during and following disbudding procedures has been studied extensively, though few studies have evaluated wound healing following cautery disbudding in dairy calves. The purpose of this study was to observe wound healing following cautery disbudding with or without treatment using a topical aluminum-based aerosol bandage (ALU) in preweaned dairy calves. Dairy calves were disbudded within the first 3 wk of life using a standard cautery disbudding protocol. The ALU treatment was randomly allocated to the right or left horn bud within each animal. The outcomes measured were lesion score (LS) and wound diameter (WD). The LS was evaluated on a scale of 1 to 3, with LS = 1 representing normal healing without a scab or exudate, LS = 2 having the presence of a scab, and LS = 3 showing the presence of wound exudate. Lesion score and WD were evaluated on a weekly basis following dehorning for 3 wk. A total of 209 animals completed the study. No difference was observed in LS between groups during the first 2 wk postdisbudding, but the proportion of LS = 3 on wk 3 postdisbudding was greater for the control group when compared with ALU (17 vs. 8%, respectively). During wk 1 and 2 postdisbudding, the odds of having delayed healing, or a LS ≥2, were similar for both groups. However, the odds tended to be different at wk 3 postdisbudding with control disbudding sites being 1.42 times more likely to have delayed healing than ALU. In wk 3, WD was 1 mm smaller in the treatment group compared with the control, and treatment decreased diameter over time compared with controls. Overall, once abnormal wound healing was observed, the likelihood of having abnormal wound healing the following week was increased. However, treatment with ALU diminished this effect on delayed healing during the follow-up period. Based on these results, the use of ALU improved wound healing following cautery disbudding of preweaned dairy calves.

Systemic distribution of viral antigen in alpacas persistently infected with bovine pestivirus.

Recently, confirmed occurrences of persistent bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) infection in North American alpacas have raised concerns about the role of persistently infected (PI) alpacas in transmission of virus among herds, yet only limited pathological descriptions of persistent infections in alpacas have been reported. The objective of this study was to characterize BVDV antigen distribution in 10 PI alpacas of varying age and to compare viral antigen distribution and localization in tissues of PI alpacas with 5 PI calves of varying age. Ocular dysplasia was evident in 1 PI alpaca, constituting the first reported congenital ocular lesion in PI alpacas. Viral antigen was widely distributed in alpaca tissues and was prominent in neurons, endothelial cells, and vascular tunica media myocytes but had limited distribution in lymphoid tissues and moderate distribution in epithelium of several organ systems of alpacas. Macrophages in the alpaca gastrointestinal system submucosa and lymph node medullary sinuses often had prominent labeling. In addition, only 1 alpaca had antigen labeling in the bone marrow in contrast to PI cattle. Labeled cells in calf tissues were more widely distributed, occurring prominently in lymphoid and epithelial tissues. Common features of the 2 host species were widespread antigen labeling and absence of lymphoid depletion.

Lying and stepping behaviors around corrective or therapeutic claw trimming.

The objectives of this study were to test differences in lying and stepping behaviors in lactating cows with altered gait or other signs of pain in the day preceding either corrective claw trimming (CCT) or therapeutic claw trimming (TCT; d -1), including healthy controls (HC) as a reference group, and to analyze the associations between categories of lying and stepping behaviors at d -1 and subsequent submission to CCT or TCT (d 0). In addition, we characterized variations in lying and stepping behaviors within 7 d relative to CCT or treatment for a specific foot condition (TCT). A total of 310 Holstein cows in a USDA-certified organic dairy herd in northern Colorado were enrolled. Cows were affixed with an accelerometer (IceQube, IceRobotics) below the fetlock of one hind leg at 12 ± 8 d in milk and monitored for 6 mo for daily activity [lying time (LY; min/d), lying bouts (LB; no./d), and steps (ST; no./d)]. Cows with altered gait or other signs of pain were submitted to claw trimming (CT; d 0) and differentiated as receiving only corrective interventions (CCT) or as being treated for a lameness disorder (TCT). Concurrent activity from cows not submitted to CT was considered a reference from HC. Daily averages for each activity within ±7 d relative to CT were compared among the 3 groups using linear mixed models (PROC MIXED of SAS; SAS Institute Inc.). Logistic regression analyses with a logit link function (PROC GLIMMIX of SAS) were used to test the associations between categories (lower quartile or less, interquartile range, and higher quartile or greater) of lying and stepping behaviors (LY, LB, and ST) preceding CT (d -1) and subsequent submission to CCT or TCT (d 0). On d -1, average (± standard error) LY was greater in TCT (631 ± 34 min/d) than in CCT (568 ± 22 min/d) and HC (581 ± 13 min/d). Overall, LB were not statistically different among groups (CCT = 18.7 ± 0.02 bouts/d; TCT = 19.6 ± 1.17 bouts/d; and HC = 19.1 ± 0.43 bouts/d). Daily ST were lower in TCT (1,810 ± 126 steps/d) than in CCT (2,803 ± 63 steps/d) and HC (2,542 ± 103 steps/d). The odds (confidence interval in parentheses) of TCT were greater in cows in the high LY [3.27 (2.47-4.33)] and high LB [2.31 (1.77-3.02)] categories at d -1. The low ST category was associated with increased odds of CCT [3.32 (1.96-5.65)] and TCT [8.48 (6.49-11.1)]. We concluded that, under the current experimental conditions, cows requiring TCT evidenced greater overall LY and lower daily ST the day before CT. However, these differences were not consistent throughout days in milk categories within the lactation. Type of CT was partially associated with category of activity the day preceding CT, and the associations were more evident for TCT. The magnitude of the behavioral changes before and after CT and the recovery times posttreatment to approach HC behavioral levels varied depending on specific conditions.

Efficacy of non-antibiotic treatment options for digital dermatitis on an organic dairy farm.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of two non-antibiotic treatment options for digital dermatitis (DD) on an organic certified dairy farm. A randomized clinical trial was conducted using 70 multiparous Holstein cows with an early DD lesion at a USDA certified organic dairy farm in Northern Colorado, USA. Cows were enrolled in the study based on the presence of early DD lesions (scores M1 and M2) and randomly assigned to one of three treatments: (1) topical application of copper sulfate and iodine (CUI); (2) topical application of honey and iodine (HOI); and (3) control subject to no treatment (CON). Cows were evaluated at enrolment and on days 3, 12, 28, and 120 post treatment for pain and lesion size and received a locomotion and a lesion score. Cure was defined as the transition from active to non-active stages (M1/M2 to M0 or M4). The formulations had variable effects on the treatment of DD. The cure rate was numerically higher for CUI on all follow up days. The proportion of cows experiencing pain on d3 after treatment was greater in CON, followed by HOI and CUI. However, this proportion increased in HOI during the follow up period. The CUI group had a greater reduction in lesion size and larger lesions persisted in HOI. Non-antibiotic treatment formulations were partially effective in the treatment of DD in organic dairy cows: The two non-antibiotic formulations resulted in an earlier transition to mature lesions compared with the control group. The CUI combination was the most effective treatment in reducing lesion size, pain, and lameness in affected cows. However, this combination had short-term efficacy, which did not persist throughout the duration of the study. The HOI combination produced only transient reduction in lesion size.

Effects of two-stage weaning with nose flap devices applied to calves on cow body condition, calf performance, and calf humoral immune response.

The effects of nose flap devices in calves before dam separation on cow BCS, pre- and postseparation calf performance, and humoral immune response were compared with traditional weaning. Primiparous and multiparous Angus and Hereford cows ( = 113) and their Angus, Hereford, and Angus × Hereford calves (179.4 ± 3.92 kg and 161 ± 22.7 d of age) were used. Cow-calf pairs were allocated to 1 of 2 treatments in a completely randomized design: 1) nose flap for 21 d before separation from the dam (NF) or 2) no nose flap for 21 d before separation from the dam (CON). Calves were separated from dams on d 0, and calves were placed in group feed-yard pens for 28 d. A subset ( = 75) of weaned calves were placed into 1 of 8 pens to evaluate DMI. Cow BCS was measured on d -21 and 56, and calves were given modified live vaccinations (d -21 and 1), challenged with ovalbumin (OVA; d 1), and weighed (d -21, 1, 7, 14, 21, and 28). In addition, blood samples were collected (d -21, 1, 14, and 28) to measure primary humoral immune response. Control calves tended to have greater BW on d 14 ( = 0.09) and 21 ( = 0.07) than NF calves, and CON calves had greater ( < 0.05) ADG from d -21 to 1 vs. NF calves. Treatments did not differ ( ≥ 0.27) for postweaning DMI, G:F, or morbidity. Serum neutralization tests for bovine viral diarrhea virus type 1 (BVDV-1) and bovine herpesvirus type 1 (BHV-1) were used to measure humoral response to a viral vaccination. Serum antibody titers to BVDV-1 for CON calves tended ( = 0.08) to be greater on d 1 and were greater ( < 0.05) by d 28 vs. NF calves. By d 28, a greater percentage ( < 0.05) of CON calves seroconverted for BVDV-1 than NF calves (82.1 vs. 66.7%, respectively). Serum antibody titers for BHV-1 were greater ( < 0.05) on d 1 and 28 for CON vs. NF calves. Humoral immune response to OVA during the 28-d postseparation period from the dam was evaluated in a subset ( = 57) of calves. There was no difference ( = 0.92) in OVA-specific IgG between treatments on d 14 or 28 ( = 0.76); however, OVA-specific IgM was greater ( < 0.05) in CON vs. NF calves on d 28. Results indicate that nose flap devices did not influence feed intake, feed efficiency, or morbidity during the initial postseparation period from the dam. However, preweaning ADG, serum BVDV-1 and BHV-1 titers, and humoral immune response to OVA were decreased in calves that received the nose flap treatment.

Congenital skeletal malformations and cleft palate induced in goats by ingestion of Lupinus, Conium and Nicotiana species.

Three piperidine alkaloid containing plants, Conium maculatum (poison-hemlock), Nicotiana glauca (tree tobacco) and Lupinus formosus (lunara lupine), induced multiple congenital contractures (MCC) and palatoschisis in goat kids when their dams were gavaged with the plant during gestation days 30-60. The skeletal abnormalities included fixed extension or flexure of the carpal, tarsal, and fetlock joints, scoliosis, lordosis, torticollis and rib cage abnormalities. Clinical signs of toxicity included those reported in sheep, cattle and pigs--ataxia, incoordination, muscular weakness, prostration and death. One quinolizidine alkaloid containing plant, Lupinus caudatus (tailcup lupine), on the other hand, which is also known to cause MCC in cows, caused only slight signs of toxicity in pregnant goats and no teratogenic effects in their offspring.

Malignant catarrhal fever: polymerase chain reaction survey for ovine herpesvirus 2 and other persistent herpesvirus and retrovirus infections of dairy cattle and bison.

Using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test for sequences of ovine herpesvirus 2 (OHV2), this virus was shown to be significantly associated with sheep-associated malignant catarrhal fever (SA-MCF) in terminal cases of disease in 34 cattle and 53 bison. Ovine herpesvirus 2 was not detected in cattle (38) and bison (10) that succumbed to other diseases. Other persistent herpesviruses, retroviruses, and pestivirus, some of which have been previously isolated from cases of SA-MCF, were not associated with the disease. These included bovine herpesvirus 4 (BHV4), bovine lymphotrophic herpesvirus (BLHV), bovine syncytial virus (BSV, also known as bovine spumavirus), bovine immunodeficiency virus (BIV), and bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV). A PCR survey for OHV2 in DNA from individual cow's peripheral blood lymphocytes in 4 dairies showed that the 1 dairy that was in close contact to sheep had a prevalence of OHV2 of 21.3%, whereas the 3 other dairies had no OHV2. Prevalence of the other herpesviruses and retroviruses in the dairy cows was variable, ranging from 2% to 51% for BHV4, 52% to 78.7% for BLHV, and 10% to 34% for BSV. Bovine lymphotrophic herpesvirus and BSV were also found in a few (1-4 of 21 tested) cases of terminal SA-MCF, but BIV and BVDV were not found in either the dairy cows sampled, or in the cases of SA-MCE No significant correlation was found between the presence of any 2 viruses (OHV2, BHV4, BLHV, BSV) in the dairy cows or terminal cases of SA-MCE

True hermaphroditism in a wild sheep: A clinical report.

Intersexuality in sheep is rare, with the freemartin anomaly being the most common. We describe here a true hermaphrodite in a wild sheep. An F(1) wild sheep ewe of Argali-mouflon X Mexican desert bighorn breeding was bred to an F(1) ram of the same breeding. A single lamb was born with the external appearance of a normal female. The lamb grew faster than its female cohorts, and by 6 months of age exhibited the aggressive behavior, size, coloration and horn development associated with males. Phenotypically, the intersex had female external genitalia with an enlarged clitoris. A human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) response test was performed when the intersex was 1-year-old and serum testosterone, progesterone and estradiol levels were compared to the response of a normal female and male of similar age and breeding. An exploratory celiotomy revealed two gonadal-like structures associated with a female reproductive tract. Histopathology of the structures revealed spermatogenically inactive testicular vessels and ovarian tissue with primary follicles. The reproductive tract was complete with two uterine horns and a cervix. The intersexuality is attributed to an XX/XXY mosaic.

Occurrence of infectious upper respiratory tract disease and response to vaccination in horses on six sentinel premises in northern Colorado.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Horses vaccinated against common agents of infectious upper respiratory disease (IURD) may not have detectable serum antibody and may not be protected from clinical disease. OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this study were to 1) investigate the serological response of horses to vaccination against influenza virus (H3N8 and H7N7) and equine herpesviruses (EHV) in a field setting and 2) evaluate associations among vaccination status, serum antibody concentrations, and occurrences of IURD in monitored horses. METHODS: In this study, horses on 6 Colorado premises were vaccinated parenterally against influenza virus and EHV, and serological response evaluated. Horses were monitored, and biological samples collected from individuals with clinical IURD and control horses. RESULTS: Of 173 horses, 61 (35.3%), 21 (12.1%) and 4 (2.3%) seroconverted in response to vaccination against EHV, influenza virus H7N7 and influenza virus H3N8, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Outbreaks of IURD in study horses were associated with influenza virus H3N8 and Streptococcus equi infection, and serological response to vaccination with conventional products was poor. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: These results confirm that horses may not respond with detectable serological responses to conventional vaccination against common respiratory viruses and, therefore, suggest that alternate methods of protecting horses against common respiratory viruses should be sought.

Early detection of bovine leukemia virus in cattle by use of the polymerase chain reaction.

A study was performed to determine whether experimentally induced bovine leukemia virus (BLV) infection in cattle could be detected earlier by use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of genomic DNA extracted from leukocytes than by use of conventional agar-gel immunodiffusion (AGID). The PCR primers were designed to amplify a 375-base-pair region of the proviral gag gene. Five cows were identified that were BLV-negative on the basis of AGID and PCR results. At day 0, these cows were inoculated IM with blood pooled from 3 naturally infected cows. Blood samples were taken on days 0, 1, and 7, and every 2 weeks thereafter until 3 months after inoculation. Three of the cows were BLV-positive by AGID test results 3 weeks after inoculation, and the remaining 2 seroconverted at 5 weeks. In contrast, all 5 cows were BLV-positive by PCR results 7 days after inoculation and remained positive for the duration of the study. Five cows that were BLV-positive by AGID test and PCR results on day 0 and from which samples were obtained at the same times as those from the other 5 cows, remained BLV-positive by results of both tests during the course of the study. Results indicate that under experimental conditions, BLV infection in cattle can be detected as much as 2 to 4 weeks earlier by use of PCR than by use of the AGID test.

Development of pneumonia in desert bighorn sheep after exposure to a flock of exotic wild and domestic sheep.

From 1986 to 1989, 5 desert bighorn sheep (3 Ovis canadensis mexicana and 2 O c nelsoni), ranging in age from 2 to 3 years, were exposed to a flock of exotic wild and domestic sheep to potentially achieve naturally acquired pneumonia. Pasteurella multocida was isolated from nasal samples from 4 of 6 sheep randomly sampled from the flock. Bighorn sheep were exposed individually and each exposure period was a trial. Treatment before and after exposure varied and included combinations of alpha interferon, antibiotics, anti-inflammatory drugs, and vaccines. Treatments were chosen on the basis of recommendations of others for treating pneumonia in desert bighorn sheep as well as our own experience in sheep and cattle. Regardless of treatment used, bighorn sheep in trials 1 to 4 developed signs of pneumonia within 10 to 14 days of exposure. Bighorn sheep in trials 1 to 3 died within 11 to 17 days of initial exposure. In trial 4, the bighorn sheep was isolated from the carrier sheep for treatment of pneumonia on day 14 and died on day 30. Pasteurella multocida was isolated from lung tissue in 3 of the 4 bighorn sheep. On the basis of results of trials 1 to 4, a more in depth clinical study was conducted in trial 5. Nasal and blood specimens were collected prior to and during trial 5 for bacteriologic culturing and serologic testing for bovine viral diarrhea virus, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, parainfluenza-3 virus, and respiratory syncytial virus.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Control of an outbreak of salmonellosis caused by drug-resistant Salmonella anatum in horses at a veterinary hospital and measures to prevent future infections.

Salmonella anatum was isolated from horses treated at a private veterinary clinic or at a university veterinary medical teaching hospital. All isolates were resistant to most commonly used antibiotics. Because of the severity of disease resulting from outbreaks of infections with drug-resistant strains of S anatum, an epidemiologic investigation was conducted. Enteric bacteria, including S anatum, that were resistant to most antibiotics were isolated from the private veterinary clinic environment. Salmonella anatum was not isolated from the university teaching hospital environment. To prevent transmission, disinfection and isolation protocols were reviewed, and changes were implemented, including discontinuing use of power sprayers for cleaning, improving a two-step disinfection process, restricting movement of horses, and enhancing awareness of Salmonella spp transmission. Communication and prompt action are pivotal in preventing dissemination of resistant strains of Salmonella spp in a clinic or hospital environment.

Association of excess sulfur intake and an increase in hydrogen sulfide concentrations in the ruminal gas cap of recently weaned beef calves with polioencephalomalacia.

During a 2-week period, 16 of 150 recently weaned calves developed signs of polioencephalomalacia (PEM). One calf was examined and treated at our veterinary teaching hospital and a necropsy was performed on a calf that died. During the peak of the outbreak, clinicians visited the ranch. Ruminal hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and blood thiamine concentrations were measured in 10 clinically normal penmates of PEM-affected calves. Ruminal H2S concentrations were high (> 0.695 mg/L [> 500 ppm]) in all cattle (mean, 12.19 mg/L [8,770 ppm]). All blood thiamine values were within the reference range. Within 12 hours after measurement of blood thiamine concentrations, 2 of the calves from which samples were obtained developed clinical signs of PEM. Dietary analysis revealed an estimated sulfur intake of 0.9% per calf on a dry-matter basis. Hay contributed most of this sulfur. In the investigation reported here, an outbreak of PEM was associated with high ruminal H2S concentrations and excess sulfur intake without evidence of thiamine deficiency.

Use of systemic disease signs to assess disease severity in dairy cows with acute coliform mastitis.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the use of systemic disease signs for classifying severity of acute coliform mastitis in dairy cows. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. ANIMALS: 144 dairy cows. PROCEDURE: Cows were examined at the time of initial identification of disease (time 0) and classified as having mild, moderate, or severe disease on the basis of rectal temperature, hydration status, rumen contraction rate, and attitude. A CBC and serum biochemical analyses were performed, and milk samples were submitted for bacterial culture at time 0 and 48 hours later. RESULTS: 69 cows were classified as having mild disease, 44 as having moderate disease, and 31 as having severe disease. Median WBC and neutrophil counts were significantly lower in cows with moderate or severe disease at time 0 than in cows with mild disease. Band neutrophil count was significantly higher at 48 hours and serum calcium concentration was significantly lower at time 0 and at 48 hours in cows with severe or moderate disease, compared with cows with mild disease. Twenty-eight, 51, and 77% of cows with mild, moderate, and severe disease, respectively, had > 100,000 colony-forming units/ml of milk at time 0. The odds that a cow with severe disease would die or be culled were 3.6 times the odds for a cow with moderate disease and 11.2 times the odds for a cow with mild disease. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggest that a classification scheme based on readily observable systemic disease signs can be used to classify disease severity in cows with acute coliform mastitis.

Bacteremia associated with naturally occuring acute coliform mastitis in dairy cows.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the incidence of bacteremia in dairy cows with naturally occurring acute coliform mastitis (ACM) with a wide range of disease severity. DESIGN: Cohort study. ANIMALS: 144 dairy cows with ACM from 6 herds. PROCEDURE: Cows were examined at time of identification of ACM (time 0) and classified as having mild, moderate, or severe mastitis on the basis of rectal temperature, hydration status, rumen contraction rate, and attitude. Cows were reexamined at 24 or 48 hours. Bacteriologic culturing of milk and blood (30 ml), CBC, and serum biochemical analysis were performed at each time point. Appropriate samples were obtained at a single point from herdmates without mastitis (controls) that were closely matched for lactation number and days since parturition. Blood culture results were compared among severity groups and controls by use of chi2 tests, as was outcome of an ACM episode for cows grouped by blood bacterial isolates. RESULTS: Bacteria were isolated from 52 blood samples from 46 of 144 (32%) cows with ACM, which was significantly more than control cows (11/156; 7.1%). Group-1 isolates (Escherichia coli, Pasteurella multocida, Mannheimia haemolytica, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterobacter agglomerans, and Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium) were identified in 20 of 144 (14%) cows with ACM and 0 of 156 control cows. Group-1 isolates were identified in 4.3, 9.1, and 42% of cows classified as having mild, moderate, and severe ACM, respectively. Escherichia coli and K pneumoniae milk and blood isolates obtained from the same cow were of the same genotype. Bacillus spp were identified in 21 of 144 (15%) cows with ACM, which was significantly more than control cows (3/156; 1.9%). Thirty-five percent of cows with a group-1 isolate died during the mastitis episode. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggest that bacteremia develops in a substantial proportion of cows with ACM. Classification of severity of disease is important for establishment of effective treatment protocols; parenteral antimicrobial treatment may be indicated in cows with ACM.

Selenium and vitamin E.

Deficiency of selenium and vitamin E has recently been identified as a major health concern of sheep producers in certain regions of the United States, and familiarity with published data on these nutrients seems to be of value to small ruminant practitioners. This article begins with a description of the biochemical roles and metabolism of selenium and vitamin E. A literature review follows in which the influence of these nutrients on the musculoskeletal, reproductive, and immune systems, as well as on flock productivity, is discussed. Methods for detection of deficiency and supplementation strategies are also described.

Assessment of the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems.

Assessment of the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems first requires a complete signalment, history, and general physical examination. Further assessment of the cardiovascular system begins with evaluation of the cardiac borders through palpation and thoracic percussion. Complete cardiac auscultation requires careful evaluation of several parameters. The location, intensity, and character of normal heart sounds are first determined. This is followed by assessment of heart rate and rhythm. Finally, special attention should be placed on identifying abnormal heart sounds and describing them based on their location, intensity, duration, sound quality, and radiation. Assessment of the arterial, venous, and capillary systems provides additional information on the status of the cardiovascular system. Assessment of the lymphatic system primarily involves evaluation of external and palpable internal lymph nodes. Commonly palpable external lymph nodes include the intermandibular, parotid, retropharyngeal, superficial cervical, subiliac, mammary, and scrotal lymph nodes. Palpable internal abdominal lymph nodes include the iliofemoral lymph nodes and the iliosacral lymph center. Other lymph nodes that may be palpable include the renal, ruminal, and mesenteric lymph nodes. Lymph nodes should be evaluated for size, consistency, and tenderness.

Ancillary tests of the cardiovascular and lymphatic system.

Clinical signs of cardiovascular or lymphatic disease may not be specific. Even such signs as edema, cardiac murmur, or cyanosis require further investigation to make a final diagnosis, determine prognosis, or assess treatment response. This article describes indications, description, and interpretation of the electrocardiogram, echocardiogram, phonocardiogram, arterial blood gases, pericardiocentesis, cardiac catheterization, lymph node aspirate or biopsy, indirect blood pressure determination, and other tests associated with the investigation of cardiovascular or lymphatic disease of food animals.

Reproductive techniques in sheep.

This article reviews current methods of evaluating reproductive performance in the sheep industry. The reproductive technologies of breeding soundness examination, reproductive ultrasonography, estrus manipulation, artificial insemination, and embryo transfer are also extensively discussed. The veterinarian's current and future role in the application of these technologies is discussed.