The mitochondrial thioredoxin reductase system (TrxR2) in vascular endothelium controls peroxynitrite levels and tissue integrity.

The mitochondrial thioredoxin/peroxiredoxin system encompasses NADPH, thioredoxin reductase 2 (TrxR2), thioredoxin 2, and peroxiredoxins 3 and 5 (Prx3 and Prx5) and is crucial to regulate cell redox homeostasis via the efficient catabolism of peroxides (TrxR2 and Trxrd2 refer to the mitochondrial thioredoxin reductase protein and gene, respectively). Here, we report that endothelial TrxR2 controls both the steady-state concentration of peroxynitrite, the product of the reaction of superoxide radical and nitric oxide, and the integrity of the vascular system. Mice with endothelial deletion of the Trxrd2 gene develop increased vascular stiffness and hypertrophy of the vascular wall. Furthermore, they suffer from renal abnormalities, including thickening of the Bowman's capsule, glomerulosclerosis, and functional alterations. Mechanistically, we show that loss of Trxrd2 results in enhanced peroxynitrite steady-state levels in both vascular endothelial cells and vessels by using a highly sensitive redox probe, fluorescein-boronate. High steady-state peroxynitrite levels were further found to coincide with elevated protein tyrosine nitration in renal tissue and a substantial change of the redox state of Prx3 toward the oxidized protein, even though glutaredoxin 2 (Grx2) expression increased in parallel. Additional studies using a mitochondria-specific fluorescence probe (MitoPY1) in vessels revealed that enhanced peroxynitrite levels are indeed generated in mitochondria. Treatment with Mn(III)tetrakis(1-methyl-4-pyridyl)porphyrin [Mn(III)TMPyP], a peroxynitrite-decomposition catalyst, blunted intravascular formation of peroxynitrite. Our data provide compelling evidence for a yet-unrecognized role of TrxR2 in balancing the nitric oxide/peroxynitrite ratio in endothelial cells in vivo and thus establish a link between enhanced mitochondrial peroxynitrite and disruption of vascular integrity.

Impaired endothelium-mediated cerebrovascular reactivity promotes anxiety and respiration disorders in mice.

Carbon dioxide (CO2), the major product of metabolism, has a strong impact on cerebral blood vessels, a phenomenon known as cerebrovascular reactivity. Several vascular risk factors such as hypertension or diabetes dampen this response, making cerebrovascular reactivity a useful diagnostic marker for incipient vascular pathology, but its functional relevance, if any, is still unclear. Here, we found that GPR4, an endothelial H+ receptor, and endothelial Gαq/11 proteins mediate the CO2/H+ effect on cerebrovascular reactivity in mice. CO2/H+ leads to constriction of vessels in the brainstem area that controls respiration. The consequential washout of CO2, if cerebrovascular reactivity is impaired, reduces respiration. In contrast, CO2 dilates vessels in other brain areas such as the amygdala. Hence, an impaired cerebrovascular reactivity amplifies the CO2 effect on anxiety. Even at atmospheric CO2 concentrations, impaired cerebrovascular reactivity caused longer apneic episodes and more anxiety, indicating that cerebrovascular reactivity is essential for normal brain function. The site-specific reactivity of vessels to CO2 is reflected by regional differences in their gene expression and the release of vasoactive factors from endothelial cells. Our data suggest the central nervous system (CNS) endothelium as a target to treat respiratory and affective disorders associated with vascular diseases.

Expression of Connexin43 Stimulates Endothelial Angiogenesis Independently of Gap Junctional Communication In Vitro.

Connexins (Cx) form gap junctions (GJ) and allow for intercellular communication. However, these proteins also modulate gene expression, growth, and cell migration. The downregulation of Cx43 impairs endothelial cell migration and angiogenetic potential. Conversely, endothelial Cx43 expression is upregulated in an in vivo angiogenesis model relying on hemodynamic forces. We studied the effects of Cx43 expression on tube formation and proliferation in HUVECs and examined its dependency on GJ communication. Expectedly, intercellular communication assessed by dye transfer was linked to Cx43 expression levels in HUVECs and was sensitive to a GJ blockade by the Cx43 mimetic peptide Gap27. The proliferation of HUVECs was not affected by Cx43 overexpression using Cx43 cDNA transfection, siRNA-mediated knockdown of Cx43, or the inhibition of GJ compared to the controls (transfection of an empty vector, scrambled siRNA, and the solvent). In contrast, endothelial tube and sprout formation in HUVECs was minimized after Cx43 knockdown and significantly enhanced after Cx43 overexpression. This was not affected by a GJ blockade (Gap27). We conclude that Cx43 expression positively modulates the angiogenic potential of endothelial cells independent of GJ communication. Since proliferation remained unaffected, we suggest that Cx43 protein may modulate endothelial cell migration, thereby supporting angiogenesis. The modulation of Cx43 expression may represent an exploitable principle for angiogenesis induction in clinical therapy.

ADAMTS-7 inhibits re-endothelialization of injured arteries and promotes vascular remodeling through cleavage of thrombospondin-1.

BACKGROUND: ADAMTS-7, a member of the disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs (ADAMTS) family, was recently identified to be significantly associated genomewide with coronary artery disease. However, the mechanisms that link ADAMTS-7 and coronary artery disease risk remain elusive. We have previously demonstrated that ADAMTS-7 promotes vascular smooth muscle cell migration and postinjury neointima formation via degradation of a matrix protein cartilage oligomeric matrix protein. Because delayed endothelium repair renders neointima and atherosclerosis plaque formation after vessel injury, we examined whether ADAMTS-7 also inhibits re-endothelialization. METHODS AND RESULTS: Wire injury of the carotid artery and Evans blue staining were performed in Adamts7(-/-) and wild-type mice. Adamts-7 deficiency greatly promoted re-endothelialization at 3, 5, and 7 days after injury. Consequently, Adamts-7 deficiency substantially ameliorated neointima formation in mice at days 14 and 28 after injury in comparison with the wild type. In vitro studies further indicated that ADAMTS-7 inhibited both endothelial cell proliferation and migration. Surprisingly, cartilage oligomeric matrix protein deficiency did not affect endothelial cell proliferation/migration and re-endothelialization in mice. In a further examination of other potential vascular substrates of ADAMTS-7, a label-free liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry secretome analysis revealed thrombospondin-1 as a potential ADAMTS-7 target. The subsequent studies showed that ADAMTS-7 was directly associated with thrombospondin-1 by its C terminus and degraded thrombospondin-1 in vivo and in vitro. The inhibitory effect of ADAMTS-7 on postinjury endothelium recovery was circumvented in Tsp1(-/-) mice. CONCLUSIONS: Our study revealed a novel mechanism by which ADAMTS-7 affects neointima formation. Thus, ADAMTS-7 is a promising treatment target for postinjury vascular intima hyperplasia.

Two polymorphisms in the Cx40 promoter are associated with hypertension and left ventricular hypertrophy preferentially in men.

BACKGROUND: Lack of connexin40, a gap junction protein expressed in endothelial and renin-producing cells, results in hypertension and cardiac hypertrophy in mice due to unleashed renin production caused by disruption of the pressure-induced feedback inhibition. We analysed human GJA5 consisting of two exons (exon1A or 1B and exon2) in a selected cohort identified by a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the GJA5 intron for polymorphisms and putative association with hypertension and left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH). METHODS: Individuals carrying a SNP in the intron of GJA5 (rs791295) were selected from the MONICA/KORA cohort (n = 1677) and searched for GJA5 polymorphisms. We accessed DNA of 178 probands, of which 26 suffered from LVH, 112 were hypertensive and 29 normotensive (unknown: 11). RESULTS: Sequencing of the GJA5 coding region did not reveal alterations suggesting the expression of functional connexin40 in all probands. Sequencing of the upstream region of transcript 1A including exon1A revealed two previously described linked SNPs (rs35594137 -44G>A; rs11552588 + 71A>G) at an increased frequency. Moreover, the rare genotype was significantly associated with hypertension and LVH with a preponderance in men. Functional analysis in a reporter gene assay verified promoter activity, however, it was unchanged by the identified SNPs after expressing respective reporter constructs in HeLa and human endothelial cells. CONCLUSION: We suggest to consider the -44G>A SNP upstream of the connexin40 transcript 1A indeed as a risk factor for hypertension in men. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear but animal data suggest that renin-producing cells may be involved and contribute to hypertension.

Endothelium-Derived Hyperpolarizing Factor and Myoendothelial Coupling: The in vivo Perspective.

The endothelium controls vascular tone adopting blood flow to tissue needs. It releases chemical mediators [e.g., nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandins (PG)] and exerts appreciable dilation through smooth muscle hyperpolarization, thus termed endothelium-dependent hyperpolarization (EDH). Initially, EDH was attributed to release of a factor, but later it was suggested that smooth muscle hyperpolarization might be derived from radial spread of an initial endothelial hyperpolarization through heterocellular channels coupling these vascular cells. The channels are indeed present and formed by connexins that enrich in gap junctions (GJ). In vitro data suggest that myoendothelial coupling underlies EDH-type dilations as evidenced by blocking experiments as well as simultaneous, merely identical membrane potential changes in endothelial and smooth muscle cells (SMCs), which is indicative of coupling through ohmic resistors. However, connexin-deficient animals do not display any attenuation of EDH-type dilations in vivo, and endothelial and SMCs exhibit distinct and barely superimposable membrane potential changes exerted by different means in vivo. Even if studied in the exact same artery EDH-type dilation exhibits distinct features in vitro and in vivo: in isometrically mounted vessels, it is rather weak and depends on myoendothelial coupling through connexin40 (Cx40), whereas in vivo as well as in vitro under isobaric conditions it is powerful and independent of myoendothelial coupling through Cx40. It is concluded that EDH-type dilations are distinct and a significant dependence on myoendothelial coupling in vitro does not reflect the situation under physiologic conditions in vivo. Myoendothelial coupling may act as a backup mechanism that is uncovered in the absence of the powerful EDH-type response and possibly reflects a situation in a pathophysiologic environment.

Preserved cardiovascular homeostasis despite blunted acetylcholine-induced dilation in mice with endothelial muscarinic M3 receptor deletion.

AIM: Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (AChMR1-5) are fundamental for cellular responses upon release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) from parasympathetic nerve fibers. ACh is the prototypical agonist stimulating endothelium-dependent dilation, but most blood vessels lack parasympathetic innervation, raising the question as to the physiologic function of endothelial AChMR in vivo. Global deletion of AChM3R revealed a role in ACh-induced vasodilation in vitro and food uptake, but overall cardiovascular homeostasis has not been examined thoroughly. METHODS: To characterize the function of endothelial AChM3R in vivo, we deleted AChM3R specifically in endothelial cells with an inducible or a non-inducible Cre-loxP system, driven by the endothelium-specific promoters VE-cadherin (indEC-M3R-/- ) or TIE2 (tek2; EC-M3R-/- ) and examined arteriolar dilation in the cremaster microcirculation, arterial pressure and cardiac function in these mice in vivo. RESULTS: In both EC-M3R-/- , ACh-induced dilation was strongly impaired in arterioles in vivo, while responses to other dilators were mostly preserved. However, arterial pressure (indEC-M3R-/- ) and arteriolar tone as a surrogate for peripheral vascular resistance did not differ between EC-M3R-/- and control mice. Aged EC-M3R-/- mice (74-78 weeks) did not differ in body weight, heart weight, cardiac structure or contractile function from controls. CONCLUSION: We conclude that AChM3R elicits the endothelium-dependent dilation upon ACh also in arterioles in vivo. Despite this prominent role, the endothelial deletion of AChM3R does not affect overall cardiovascular homeostasis. Thus, their physiologic function in endothelial cells remains obscure.

A shear-dependent NO-cGMP-cGKI cascade in platelets acts as an auto-regulatory brake of thrombosis.

Mechanisms that limit thrombosis are poorly defined. One of the few known endogenous platelet inhibitors is nitric oxide (NO). NO activates NO sensitive guanylyl cyclase (NO-GC) in platelets, resulting in an increase of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP). Here we show, using cGMP sensor mice to study spatiotemporal dynamics of platelet cGMP, that NO-induced cGMP production in pre-activated platelets is strongly shear-dependent. We delineate a new mode of platelet-inhibitory mechanotransduction via shear-activated NO-GC followed by cGMP synthesis, activation of cGMP-dependent protein kinase I (cGKI), and suppression of Ca2+ signaling. Correlative profiling of cGMP dynamics and thrombus formation in vivo indicates that high cGMP concentrations in shear-exposed platelets at the thrombus periphery limit thrombosis, primarily through facilitation of thrombus dissolution. We propose that an increase in shear stress during thrombus growth activates the NO-cGMP-cGKI pathway, which acts as an auto-regulatory brake to prevent vessel occlusion, while preserving wound closure under low shear.

Publisher Correction: A shear-dependent NO-cGMP-cGKI cascade in platelets acts as an auto-regulatory brake of thrombosis.

The original version of this Article contained an error in the description of Supplementary Movie 4, in which the final sentence was inadvertently truncated. The HTML has been updated to include a corrected version of the 'Description of Additional Supplementary Files' file.

Oxidant sensor in the cGMP-binding pocket of PKGIα regulates nitroxyl-mediated kinase activity.

Despite the mechanisms for endogenous nitroxyl (HNO) production and action being incompletely understood, pharmacological donors show broad therapeutic promise and are in clinical trials. Mass spectrometry and site-directed mutagenesis showed that chemically distinct HNO donors 1-nitrosocyclohexyl acetate or Angeli's salt induced disulfides within cGMP-dependent protein kinase I-alpha (PKGIα), an interdisulfide between Cys42 of the two identical subunits of the kinase and a previously unobserved intradisulfide between Cys117 and Cys195 in the high affinity cGMP-binding site. Kinase activity was monitored in cells transfected with wildtype (WT), Cys42Ser or Cys117/195Ser PKGIα that cannot form the inter- or intradisulfide, respectively. HNO enhanced WT kinase activity, an effect significantly attenuated in inter- or intradisulfide-deficient PKGIα. To investigate whether the intradisulfide modulates cGMP binding, real-time imaging was performed in vascular smooth muscle cells expressing a FRET-biosensor comprising the cGMP-binding sites of PKGIα. HNO induced FRET changes similar to those elicited by an increase of cGMP, suggesting that intradisulfide formation is associated with activation of PKGIα. Intradisulfide formation in PKGIα correlated with enhanced HNO-mediated vasorelaxation in mesenteric arteries in vitro and arteriolar dilation in vivo in mice. HNO induces intradisulfide formation in PKGIα, inducing the same effect as cGMP binding, namely kinase activation and thus vasorelaxation.

Correlative intravital imaging of cGMP signals and vasodilation in mice.

Cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) is an important signaling molecule and drug target in the cardiovascular system. It is well known that stimulation of the vascular nitric oxide (NO)-cGMP pathway results in vasodilation. However, the spatiotemporal dynamics of cGMP signals themselves and the cGMP concentrations within specific cardiovascular cell types in health, disease, and during pharmacotherapy with cGMP-elevating drugs are largely unknown. To facilitate the analysis of cGMP signaling in vivo, we have generated transgenic mice that express fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based cGMP sensor proteins. Here, we describe two models of intravital FRET/cGMP imaging in the vasculature of cGMP sensor mice: (1) epifluorescence-based ratio imaging in resistance-type vessels of the cremaster muscle and (2) ratio imaging by multiphoton microscopy within the walls of subcutaneous blood vessels accessed through a dorsal skinfold chamber. Both methods allow simultaneous monitoring of NO-induced cGMP transients and vasodilation in living mice. Detailed protocols of all steps necessary to perform and evaluate intravital imaging experiments of the vasculature of anesthetized mice including surgery, imaging, and data evaluation are provided. An image segmentation approach is described to estimate FRET/cGMP changes within moving structures such as the vessel wall during vasodilation. The methods presented herein should be useful to visualize cGMP or other biochemical signals that are detectable with FRET-based biosensors, such as cyclic adenosine monophosphate or Ca(2+), and to correlate them with respective vascular responses. With further refinement and combination of transgenic mouse models and intravital imaging technologies, we envision an exciting future, in which we are able to "watch" biochemistry, (patho-)physiology, and pharmacotherapy in the context of a living mammalian organism.

Activation of KCa3.1 by SKA-31 induces arteriolar dilatation and lowers blood pressure in normo- and hypertensive connexin40-deficient mice.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The calcium-activated potassium channel KCa3.1 is expressed in the vascular endothelium where its activation causes endothelial hyperpolarization and initiates endothelium-derived hyperpolarization (EDH)-dependent dilatation. Here, we investigated whether pharmacological activation of KCa3.1 dilates skeletal muscle arterioles and whether myoendothelial gap junctions formed by connexin40 (Cx40) are required for EDH-type dilatations and pressure depressor responses in vivo. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: We performed intravital microscopy in the cremaster muscle microcirculation and blood pressure telemetry in Cx40-deficient mice. KEY RESULTS: In wild-type mice, the KCa3.1-activator SKA-31 induced pronounced concentration-dependent arteriolar EDH-type dilatations, amounting to ∼40% of maximal dilatation, and enhanced the effects of ACh. These responses were absent in mice devoid of KCa3.1 channels. In contrast, SKA-31-induced dilatations were not attenuated in mice with endothelial cells deficient in Cx40 (Cx40(fl/fl):Tie2-Cre). In isolated endothelial cell clusters, SKA-31 induced hyperpolarizations of similar magnitudes (by ∼38 mV) in Cx40(fl/fl):Tie2-Cre, ubiquitous Cx40-deficient mice (Cx40(-/-)) and controls (Cx40(fl/fl)), which were reversed by the specific KCa3.1-blocker TRAM-34. In normotensive wild-type and Cx40(fl/fl):Tie2-Cre as well as in hypertensive Cx40(-/-) animals, i.p. injections of SKA-31 (30 and 100 mg·kg(-1)) decreased arterial pressure by ∼32 mmHg in all genotypes. The depressor response to 100 mg·kg(-1) SKA-31 was associated with a decrease in heart rate. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: We conclude that endothelial hyperpolarization evoked by pharmacological activation of KCa3.1 channels induces EDH-type arteriolar dilatations that are independent of endothelial Cx40 and Cx40-containing myoendothelial gap junctions. As SKA-31 reduced blood pressure in hypertensive Cx40-deficient mice, KCa3.1 activators may be useful drugs for severe treatment-resistant hypertension.

Defective Cx40 maintains Cx37 expression but intact Cx40 is crucial for conducted dilations irrespective of hypertension.

The gap junction channel protein connexin40 (Cx40) is crucial in vascular and renal physiology, because Cx40-deficient mice exhibit impaired conduction of endothelium-dependent dilations and pronounced hypertension. The latter precludes mechanistic insights into the role of endothelial Cx40, because long-lasting hypertension itself may affect conduction and Cx expression. We aimed to identify endothelial Cx40 functions, their dependency on the conductive capability, and to separate these from hypertension-related alterations. We assessed conduction and Cx expression in mice with cell type-specific deletion of Cx40 and in mice expressing a defective Cx40 (Cx40A96S) identified in humans, which forms nonconducting gap junction channels. Confined arteriolar stimulation with acetylcholine or bradykinin elicited local dilations that conducted upstream without attenuation of the amplitude for distances up to 1.2-mm in controls with a floxed Cx40 gene (Cx40(fl/fl)). Conducted responses in hypertensive animals devoid of Cx40 in renin-producing cells were unaltered but remote dilations were reduced in normotensive animals deficient for Cx40 in endothelial cells (Cx40(fl/fl):Tie2-Cre). Surprisingly, Cx37 expression was undetectable by immunostaining in arteriolar endothelium only in Cx40(fl/fl):Tie2-Cre; however, transcriptional activity of Cx37 in the cremaster was comparable with Cx40(fl/fl) controls. Cx40A96S mice were hypertensive with preserved expression of Cx40 and Cx37. Nevertheless, conducted responses were blunted. We conclude that endothelial Cx40 is necessary to support conducted dilations initiated by endothelial agonists and to locate Cx37 into the plasma membrane. These functions are unaltered by long-lasting hypertension. In the presence of a nonconducting Cx40, Cx37 is present but cannot support the conduction highlighting the importance of endothelial Cx40.

Amplification of EDHF-type vasodilatations in TRPC1-deficient mice.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: TRPC1 channels are expressed in the vasculature and are putative candidates for intracellular Ca(2+) handling. However, little is known about their role in endothelium-dependent vasodilatations including endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor (EDHF) vasodilatations, which require activation of Ca(2+) -activated K(+) channels (K(Ca)). To provide molecular information on the role of TRPC1 for K(Ca) function and the EDHF signalling complex, we examined endothelium-dependent and independent vasodilatations, K(Ca) currents and smooth muscle contractility in TRPC1-deficient mice (TRPC1-/-). EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Vascular responses were studied using pressure/wire myography and intravital microscopy. We performed electrophysiological measurements, and confocal Ca(2+) imaging for studying K(Ca) channel functions and Ca(2+) sparks. KEY RESULTS: TRPC1 deficiency in carotid arteries produced a twofold augmentation of TRAM-34- and UCL1684-sensitive EDHF-type vasodilatations and of endothelial hyperpolarization to acetylcholine. NO-mediated vasodilatations were unchanged. TRPC1-/- exhibited enhanced EDHF-type vasodilatations in resistance-sized arterioles in vivo associated with reduced spontaneous tone. Endothelial IK(Ca) /SK(Ca)-type K(Ca) currents, smooth muscle cell Ca(2+) sparks and associated BK(Ca)-mediated spontaneous transient outward currents were unchanged in TRPC1-/-. Smooth muscle contractility induced by receptor-operated Ca(2+) influx or Ca(2+) release and endothelium-independent vasodilatations were unaltered in TRPC1-/-. TRPC1-/- exhibited lower systolic blood pressure as determined by tail-cuff blood pressure measurements. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Our data demonstrate that TRPC1 acts as a negative regulator of endothelial K(Ca) channel-dependent EDHF-type vasodilatations and thereby contributes to blood pressure regulation. Thus, we propose a specific role of TRPC1 in the EDHF-K(Ca) signalling complex and suggest that pharmacological inhibition of TRPC1, by enhancing EDHF vasodilatations, may be a novel strategy for lowering blood pressure.