The amyloid precursor protein of Alzheimer's disease in the reduction of copper(II) to copper(I)

The transition metal ion copper(II) has a critical role in chronic neurologic diseases. The amyloid precursor protein (APP) of Alzheimer's disease or a synthetic peptide representing its copper-binding site reduced bound copper(II) to copper(I). This copper ion-mediated redox reaction led to disulfide bond formation in APP, which indicated that free sulfhydryl groups of APP were involved. Neither superoxide nor hydrogen peroxide had an effect on the kinetics of copper(II) reduction. The reduction of copper(II) to copper(I) by APP involves an electron-transfer reaction and could enhance the production of hydroxyl radicals, which could then attack nearby sites. Thus, copper-mediated toxicity may contribute to neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease.

Determination of guinea-pig cortical gamma-secretase activity ex vivo following the systemic administration of a gamma-secretase inhibitor.

(2S)-2-{[(3,5-Diflurophenyl)acetyl]amino}-N-[(3S)-1-methyl-2-oxo-5-phenyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-1,4-benzodiazepin-3-yl]propanamide (compound E) is a gamma-secretase inhibitor capable of reducing amyloid beta-peptide (1-40) and amyloid beta-peptide (1-42) levels. In this study we investigated the effect of in vivo administration of compound E on guinea-pig plasma, CSF and cortical amyloid beta-peptide (1-40) concentration. Using repeated sampling of CSF, compound E (30 mg/kg p.o.) was shown to cause a time-dependent decrease in CSF amyloid beta-peptide (1-40) levels, which was maximal at 3 h (70% inhibition), compared to baseline controls. After 3 h administration, compound E (3, 10 and 30 mg/kg p.o.), reduced plasma, CSF and DEA-extracted cortical amyloid beta-peptide (1-40) levels by 95, 97 and 99%; 26, 48 and 78%; 32, 33, and 47%, respectively, compared to vehicle control values. In the same animals, compound E (3, 10 and 30 mg/kg p.o.) inhibited cortical gamma-secretase activity, determined ex vivo using the recombinant substrate C100Flag, by 40, 71 and 79% of controls, respectively. These data demonstrate the value of determining not only the extent by which systemic administration of a gamma-secretase inhibitor reduces amyloid beta-peptide, but also the inhibition of brain gamma-secretase activity, as a more direct estimate of enzyme occupancy.

The beta A4 amyloid precursor protein binding to copper.

Previously it has been shown that the extracellular domain of transmembrane beta A4 amyloid precursor protein (APP) includes binding sites for zinc(II) and for molecules of the extracellular matrix such as collagen, laminin and the heparin sulfate chains of proteoglycans (HSPGs). Here we report that APP also binds copper ions. A copper type II binding site was located within residues 135-155 of the cysteine-rich domain of APP695 which is present in all eight APP splice isoforms known so far. The two essential histidines in the type II copper binding site of APP are conserved in the related protein APLP2. Copper(II) binding is shown to inhibit homophilic APP binding. The identification of a copper(II) binding site in APP suggests that APP and APLP2 may be involved in electron transfer and radical reactions.

Reactive oxygen species and Alzheimer's disease.

Although a consensus that Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a single disease has not been reached yet, the involvement of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and betaA4 (A beta) in the pathologic changes advances our understanding of the underlying molecular alterations. Increasing evidence implicates oxidative stress in the neurodegenerative process of AD. This hypothesis is based on the toxicity of betaA4 in cell cultures, and the findings that aggregation of betaA4 can be induced by metal-catalyzed oxidation and that free oxygen radicals may be involved in APP metabolism. Another neurological disorder, familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (FALS), supports our view that AD and FALS may be linked through a common mechanism. In FALS, SOD-Cu(I) complexes are affected by hydrogen peroxide and free radicals are produced. In AD, the reduction of Cu(II) to Cu(I) by APP involves an electron-transfer reaction and could also lead to a production of hydroxyl radicals. Thus, copper-mediated toxicity of APP-Cu(II)/(I) complexes may contribute to neurodegeneration in AD.

Regulation of APP expression, biogenesis and metabolism by extracellular matrix and cytokines.

We have identified and characterized the ligand binding properties of the Alzheimer's disease (AD) beta A4 amyloid protein precursor (APP), mapped the APP ligand binding sites and analyzed the regulation of APP expression, biogenesis and metabolism by components of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and cytokines.

Quantification of Alzheimer pathology in ageing and dementia: age-related accumulation of amyloid-beta(42) peptide in vascular dementia.

Clinicopathological observations suggest there is considerable overlap between vascular dementia (VaD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). We used immunochemical methods to compare quantities of amyloid-beta (Abeta) peptides in post mortem brain samples from VaD, AD subjects and nondemented ageing controls. Total Abeta peptides extracted from temporal and frontal cortices were quantified using a previously characterized sensitive homogenous time-resolved fluorescence (HTRF) assay. The HTRF assays and immunocapture mass spectrometric analyses revealed that the Abeta(42) species were by far the predominant form of extractable peptide compared with Abeta(40) peptide in VaD brains. The strong signal intensity for the peak representing Abeta(4-42) peptide confirmed that these N-terminally truncated species are relatively abundant. Absolute quantification by HTRF assay showed that the mean amount of total Abeta(42) recovered from VaD samples was approximately 50% of that in AD, and twice that in the age-matched controls. Linear correlation analysis further revealed an increased accumulation with age of both Abeta peptides in brains of VaD subjects and controls. Interestingly, VaD patients surviving beyond 80 years of age exhibited comparable Abeta(42) concentrations with those in AD in the temporal cortex. Our findings suggest that brain Abeta accumulates increasingly with age in VaD subjects more so than in elderly without cerebrovascular disease and support the notion that they acquire Alzheimer-like pathology in older age.

Two domains within the first putative transmembrane domain of presenilin 1 differentially influence presenilinase and gamma-secretase activity.

Presenilins (PS) are thought to contain the active site for presenilinase endoproteolysis of PS and gamma-secretase cleavage of substrates. The structural requirements for PS incorporation into the gamma-secretase enzyme complex, complex stability and maturation, and appropriate presenilinase and gamma-secretase activity are poorly understood. We used rescue assays to identify sequences in transmembrane domain one (TM1) of PS1 required to support presenilinase and gamma-secretase activities. Swap mutations identified an N-terminal TM1 domain that is important for gamma-secretase activity only and a C-terminal TM1 domain that is essential for both presenilinase and gamma-secretase activities. Exchange of residues 95-98 of PS1 (sw95-98) completely abolishes both activities while the familial Alzheimer's disease mutation V96F significantly inhibits both activities. Reversion of residue 96 back to valine in the sw95-98 mutant rescues PS function, identifying V96 as the critical residue in this region. The TM1 mutants do not bind to an aspartyl protease transition state analog gamma-secretase inhibitor, indicating a conformational change induced by the mutations that abrogates catalytic activity. TM1 mutant PS1 molecules retain the ability to interact with gamma-secretase substrates and gamma-secretase complex members, although Nicastrin stability is decreased by the presence of these mutants. gamma-Secretase complexes that contain V96F mutant PS1 molecules display a partial loss of function for gamma-secretase that alters the ratio of amyloid-beta peptide species produced, leading to the amyloid-beta peptide aggregation that causes familial Alzheimer's disease.

Gamma-secretase inhibition.

Development of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology appears to be causally related to age-dependent changes in the metabolism of the amyloid-beta peptide (A beta), leading to its enhanced aggregation and deposition. gamma-Secretase is a crucial enzyme for the generation of A beta from the amyloid-beta precursor protein and thus represents a valid potential therapeutic target for the treatment or prevention of AD. Enzyme activity has been shown to be dependent on the expression of presenilins and the identification of inhibitors containing transition-state analogue mimics, together with mutagenesis and knockout studies, confirms that presenilins may provide at least a component of the catalytic site for this putative aspartyl protease. Considerable effort has been expended to identify compounds which specifically reduce gamma-secretase activity in the central nervous system, and those with the appropriate properties are being utilized in on-going proof-of-concept studies in animals and humans, to determine the extent and duration of gamma-secretase inhibition required to elicit therapeutic benefits. gamma-Secretase-mediated substrate cleavage appears to fall into the category of 'regulated intramembrane proteolysis'. By virtue of its mechanistic similarities, the effects of gamma-secretase inhibitors on proteolysis and signalling through other substrates, such as Notch, has to be determined carefully, since this is likely to impact on the clinically safe dose of these compounds.

Regulation of amyloid protein precursor (APP) binding to collagen and mapping of the binding sites on APP and collagen type I.

The specific binding of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) to extracellular matrix molecules suggests that APP regulates cell interactions and has a function as a cell adhesion molecule and/or substrate adhesion molecule. On the molecular level APP has binding sites for collagen, laminin, and glycosaminoglycans which is a characteristic feature of cell adhesion molecules. We have examined the interactions between the APP and collagen types I and IV and identified the corresponding binding sites on APP and collagen type I. We show that APP bound most efficiently to collagen type I in a concentration-dependent and specific manner in the native and heat-denatured states, suggesting an involvement of a contiguous binding site on collagen. This binding site was identified on the cyanogen bromide fragment alpha 1(I)CB6 of collagen type I, which also binds heparin. APP did not bind to collagen type I-heparin complexes, which suggests that there are overlapping binding sites for heparin and APP on collagen. We localized the site of APP that mediates collagen binding within residues 448-465 of APP695, which are encoded by the ubiquitously expressed APP exon 12, whereas the high affinity heparin binding site of APP is located in exon 9. Since a peptide encompassing this region binds to collagen type I and inhibits APP-collagen type I binding in nanomolar concentrations, this region may comprise the major part of the collagen type I binding site of APP. Moreover, our data also indicate that the collagen binding site is involved in APP-APP interaction that can be modulated by Zn(II) and heparin. Taken together, the data suggest that the regulation of APP binding to collagen type I by heparin occurs through the competitive binding of heparin and APP to collagen.

Homodimerization of amyloid precursor protein and its implication in the amyloidogenic pathway of Alzheimer's disease.

We reported previously that the carbohydrate domain of the amyloid precursor protein is involved in amyloid precursor protein (APP)-APP interactions. Functional in vitro studies suggested that this interaction occurs through the collagen binding site of APP. The physiological significance remained unknown, because it is not understood whether and how APP dimerization occurs in vivo. Here we report that cellular APP exists as homodimers matching best with a two-site model. Consistent with our published crystallographic data, we show that a deletion of the entire sequence after the kunitz protease inhibitor domain did not abolish APP homodimerization, suggesting that two domains are critically involved but that neither is essential for homodimerization. Finally, we generated stabilized dimers by expressing mutant APP with a single cysteine in the ectodomain juxtamembrane region. Mutation of Lys(624) to cysteine produced approximately 6-8-fold more A beta than cells expressing normal APP. Our results suggest that amyloid A beta production can in principle be positively regulated by dimerization in vivo. We suggest that dimerization could be a physiologically important mechanism for regulating the proposed signal activity of APP.

Pharmacological knock-down of the presenilin 1 heterodimer by a novel gamma -secretase inhibitor: implications for presenilin biology.

Intramembranous cleavage of the beta-amyloid precursor protein by gamma-secretase is the final processing event generating amyloid-beta peptides, which are thought to be causative agents for Alzheimer's disease. Missense mutations in the presenilin genes co-segregate with early-onset Alzheimer's disease, and, recently, a close biochemical linkage between presenilins and the identity of gamma-secretase has been established. Here we describe for the first time that certain potent gamma-secretase inhibitors are able to interfere with the endoproteolytic processing of presenilin 1 (PS1). In addition, we identified a novel gamma-secretase inhibitor, [1S-benzyl-4R-[1-(5-cyclohexyl-2-oxo-2,3-dihydro-1H-benzo[e][1,4]diazepin-3(R,S)-ylcarbamoyl)-S-ethylcarbamoyl]-2R-hydroxy-5-phenyl-pentyl]-carbamic acid tert-butyl ester (CBAP), which not only physically interacts with PS1, but upon chronic treatment produces a "pharmacological knock-down" of PS1 fragments. This indicates that the observed accumulation of full-length PS1 is caused by a direct inhibition of its endoproteolysis. The subsequent use of CBAP as a biological tool to increase full-length PS1 levels in the absence of exogenous PS1 expression has provided evidence that wild-type PS1 endoproteolysis is not required either for PS1/gamma-secretase complex assembly or trafficking. Furthermore, in cell-based systems CBAP does not completely recapitulate PS1 loss-of-function phenotypes. Even though the beta-amyloid precursor protein cleavage and the S3 cleavage of the Notch receptor are inhibited by CBAP, an impairment of Trk receptor maturation was not observed.

L-685,458, an aspartyl protease transition state mimic, is a potent inhibitor of amyloid beta-protein precursor gamma-secretase activity.

Progressive cerebral amyloid beta-protein (A beta) deposition is believed to play a central role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Elevated levels of A beta(42) peptide formation have been linked to early-onset familial AD-causing gene mutations in the amyloid beta-protein precursor (A beta PP) and the presenilins. Sequential cleavage of A beta PP by the beta- and gamma-secretases generates the N- and C-termini of the A beta peptide, making both the beta- and gamma-secretase enzymes potential therapeutic targets for AD. The identity of the A beta PP gamma-secretase and the mechanism by which the C-termini of A beta are formed remain uncertain, although it has been suggested that the presenilins themselves are novel intramembrane-cleaving gamma-secretases of the aspartyl protease class [Wolfe, M. S., Xia, W., Ostaszewski, B. L., Diehl, T. S., Kimberly, W. T., and Selkoe, D. J. (1999) Nature 398, 513-517]. In this study we report the identification of L-685,458 as a structurally novel inhibitor of A beta PP gamma-secretase activity, with a similar potency for inhibition of A beta(42) and A beta(40) peptides. This compound contains an hydroxyethylene dipeptide isostere which suggests that it could function as a transition state analogue mimic of an aspartyl protease. The preferred stereochemistry of the hydroxyethylene dipeptide isostere was found to be the opposite to that required for inhibition of the HIV-1 aspartyl protease, a factor which may contribute to the observed specificity of this compound. Specific and potent inhibitors of A beta PP gamma-secretase activity such as L-685,458 will enable important advances toward the identification and elucidation of the mechanism of action of this enigmatic protease.

Proteolytic fragments of Alzheimer's disease-associated presenilin 1 are present in synaptic organelles and growth cone membranes of rat brain.

Previous studies have demonstrated the molecular linkage of three causative genes for early-onset Alzheimer's disease: the presenilin 1 gene on chromosome 14, the presenilin 2 gene on chromosome 1, and the amyloid precursor protein gene on chromosome 21. In the present study, we have investigated the distributions of the approximately 20-kDa C-terminal and approximately 30-kDa N-terminal fragments of presenilin 1 and the amyloid precursor protein in rat brain and compared them with the distribution of several marker proteins. The fragments of presenilin 1 are present in synaptic plasma membranes, neurite growth cone membranes, and small synaptic vesicles of rat brain. Both proteolytic fragments are coenriched in the corresponding tissue fractions. Based on this observation, it seems likely that N- and C-terminal presenilin 1 fragments form a functional unit while remaining associated. In contrast to a predominant subcellular localization of presenilin 1 to the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus in different cell lines, our results indicate that rat brain presenilin 1 fragments exit from these biosynthetic compartments to reach synaptic organelles in neurons.

Disrupted in Schizophrenia 1 and Nudel form a neurodevelopmentally regulated protein complex: implications for schizophrenia and other major neurological disorders.

Disrupted In Schizophrenia 1 (DISC1) was identified as a potential susceptibility gene for schizophrenia due to its disruption by a balanced t(1;11) (q42;q14) translocation, which has been shown to cosegregate with major psychiatric disease in a large Scottish family. We have demonstrated that DISC1 exists in a neurodevelopmentally regulated protein complex with Nudel. The complex is abundant at E17 and in early postnatal life but is greatly reduced in the adult. Nudel has previously been shown to bind Lis1, a gene underlying lissencephaly in humans. Critically, we show that the predicted peptide product resulting from the Scottish translocation removes the interaction domain for Nudel. DISC1 interacts with Nudel through a leucine zipper domain and binds to a novel DISC1-interaction domain on Nudel, which is independent from the Lis1 binding site. We show that Nudel is able to act as a bridge between DISC1 and Lis1 to allow formation of a trimolecular complex. Nudel has been implicated to play a role in neuronal migration, together with the developmental variation in the abundance of the DISC1-Nudel complex, may implicate a defective DISC1-Nudel complex as a neurodevelopmental cause of schizophrenia.