Workplace inequality is associated with status-signaling expenditure.

Regional inequality is known to magnify sensitivity to social rank. This, in turn, is shown to increase people's propensity to acquire luxury goods as a means to elevate their perceived social status. Yet existing research has focused on broad, aggregated datasets, and little is known about how individual-level measures of income interact with inequality within peer groups to affect status signaling. Using detailed financial transaction data, we construct 32,008 workplace peer groups and explore the longitudinal spending and salary data associated with 683,677 individuals. These data reveal links between people's status spending, their absolute salary, salary rank within their workplace peer group, and the inequality of their workplace salary distribution. Status-signaling luxury spending is found to be greatest among those who have higher salaries, whose workplaces exhibit higher inequality, and who occupy a lower rank position within the workplace. We propose that low-rank individuals in unequal workplaces suffer status anxiety and, if they can afford it, spend to signal higher status.

Characterization of social hierarchy formation and maintenance in same-sex, group-housed male and female C57BL/6 J mice.

Social hierarchies are a prevalent feature of all animal groups, and an individual's rank within the group can significantly affect their overall health, typically at the greatest expense of the lowest-ranked individuals, or omegas. These subjects have been shown to exhibit various stress-related phenotypes, such as increased hypothalamic-pituitary axis activity and increased amygdalar corticotropin-releasing factor levels compared to higher-ranked subjects. However, these findings have been primarily characterized in males and in models requiring exhibition of severe aggression. The goals of the current study, therefore, were to characterize the formation and maintenance of social hierarchies using the tube test and palatable liquid competition in same-sex groups of male and female C57BL/6 J mice. We also aimed to examine the effects of tube test-determined social rank on plasma and hypothalamic oxytocin and vasopressin levels, peptides with established roles in social behaviors and the stress response. Lastly, we assessed the effects of environmental enrichment and length of testing on the measures outlined above. Overall, we demonstrated that males and females develop social hierarchies and that these hierarchies can be determined using the tube test. While we were unable to establish a consistent connection between peptide levels and social rank, we observed transient changes in these peptides reflecting complex interactions between social rank, sex, environment, and length of testing. We also found that many male and female omegas began to exhibit passive coping behavior after repeated tube test losses, demonstrating the potential of this assay to serve as a model of chronic, mild psychosocial stress.

Status-dependent metabolic effects of social interactions in a group-living fish.

Social interactions can sometimes be a source of stress, but social companions can also ameliorate and buffer against stress. Stress and metabolism are closely linked, but the degree to which social companions modulate metabolic responses during stressful situations-and whether such effects differ depending on social rank-is poorly understood. To investigate this question, we studied Neolamprologus pulcher, a group-living cichlid fish endemic to Lake Tanganyika and measured the metabolic responses of dominant and subordinate individuals when they were either visible or concealed from one another. When individuals could see each other, subordinates had lower maximum metabolic rates and tended to take longer to recover following an exhaustive chase compared with dominants. In contrast, metabolic responses of dominants and subordinates did not differ when individuals could not see one another. These findings suggest that the presence of a dominant individual has negative metabolic consequences for subordinates, even in stable social groups with strong prosocial relationships.

Pride: The Emotional Foundation of Social Rank Attainment.

Pride is a self-conscious emotion, comprised of two distinct facets known as authentic and hubristic pride, and associated with a cross-culturally recognized nonverbal expression. Authentic pride involves feelings of accomplishment and confidence and promotes prosocial behaviors, whereas hubristic pride involves feelings of arrogance and conceit and promotes antisociality. Each facet of pride, we argue, contributes to a distinct means of attaining social rank: Authentic pride seems to promote prestige-a rank based on earned respect-whereas hubristic pride seems to promote dominance-a rank based on aggression and coercion. Both prestige and dominance are effective routes to power and influence in human groups, so both facets of pride are likely to be functional adaptations. Overall, the reviewed research suggests that pride is likely to be a human universal, critical for social relationships and rank attainment across human societies.

The interplay of social rank perceptions of Trump and Biden and emotions following the U.S. presidential election 2020.

The outcome of the 2020 U.S. election between Trump and Biden evoked strong emotions. In U.S. American (Study 1; N = 405) and German (Study 2; N = 123) samples, we investigated how observers' group membership (i.e. political orientation) and the social rank attainment of both candidates (i.e. dominance vs. prestige) predicted emotional reactions. Trump was generally perceived as more dominant, and Biden as more prestigious. However, perceptions of social rank attainment differed depending on the observers' political orientation, either matching or not matching with the leaders (i.e. Republicans and Democrats, respectively). The candidate who did not share the participants' political orientation was perceived as less prestigious and more dominant and elicited stronger contrastive emotions (i.e. schadenfreude, malicious envy) and weaker assimilative emotions (i.e. happy-for-ness, sympathy, anger), and vice versa. Crucially, dominance and prestige perceptions explained variance in the emotional reactions of more conservative and more liberal participants. Prestige positively predicted assimilative emotions and dominance contrastive emotions. Our work advances theorising by providing evidence that dominance and prestige perceptions contribute to the elicitation of various emotions. Furthermore, it suggests that prestige and dominance are not fixed characteristics of liberal and conservative leaders but depend on the observers' group membership.

Gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone as a regulator of social interactions in vertebrates.

The social environment changes circulating hormone levels and expression of social behavior in animals. Social information is perceived by sensory systems, leading to cellular and molecular changes through neural processes. Peripheral reproductive hormone levels are regulated by activity in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis. Until the end of the last century, the neurochemical systems that convey social information to the HPG axis were not well understood. Gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone (GnIH) was the first hypothalamic neuropeptide shown to inhibit gonadotropin release, in 2000. GnIH is now regarded as a negative upstream regulator of the HPG axis, and it is becoming increasingly evident that it responds to social cues. In addition to controlling reproductive physiology, GnIH seems to modulate the reproductive behavior of animals. Here, we review studies investigating how GnIH neurons respond to social information and describe the mechanisms through which GnIH regulates social behavior.

Daily fluctuations in social status, self-esteem, and clinically relevant emotions: Testing hierometer theory and social rank theory at a within-person level.

INTRODUCTION: Grounded in hierometer theory and social rank theory, this research examined how within-person fluctuations in social status relate to within-person fluctuations in self-esteem and several clinically relevant emotions. Both hierometer theory and social rank theory postulate that particular psychological mechanisms help individuals to navigate social hierarchies adaptively. However, hierometer theory emphasizes self-esteem, whereas social rank theory emphasizes emotions-specifically, depression, anxiety, and shame. METHODS: We conducted a 10-day diary study and analyzed the data using multilevel modeling. Participants (N = 345) completed daily measures of their social status, self-esteem, depression, anxiety, shame, and guilt. RESULTS: On days when their status was higher, participants reported higher self-esteem and lower depression, anxiety, and shame. On days when their self-esteem was higher, participants reported lower depression, anxiety, and shame. These patterns persisted after controlling for baseline individual differences. Furthermore, multilevel mediation analyses indicated that daily self-esteem mediated the links between daily status, and, individually, daily depression, anxiety, and shame, but not guilt. CONCLUSIONS: Supporting hierometer theory and social rank theory, self-esteem, and the clinically relevant emotions (except for guilt) appear to serve a status-tracking function. Self-esteem plays a more primary role, accounting for the link between status and depression, anxiety, and shame.

Affective and cognitive impact of social overinclusion: a meta-analytic review of cyberball studies.

Belongingness is a central biopsychosocial system. Challenges to belongingness (i.e. exclusion/ostracism) engender robust negative effects on affect and cognitions. Whether overinclusion - getting more than one's fair share of social attention - favourably impacts affect and cognitions remains an open question. This pre-registered meta-analysis includes twenty-two studies (N = 2757) examining overinclusion in the context of the Cyberball task. We found that the estimated overall effect size of overinclusion on positive affect was small but robust, and the effect on fundamental needs cognitions (belongingness, self-esteem, meaningful existence and control) was moderate in size and positive in direction. Notably, the effect sizes of overinclusion were smaller than the corresponding effects of exclusion. Finally, the effects of overinclusion on positive affect were greater for high, as compared to low, socially anxious individuals. Exploring the sequelae of the full range of inclusion experiences - from exclusion to overinclusion - may enrich our understanding of the functioning of the belongingness system as well as its interaction with another central biosocial system - the social status system.

The role of insight, social rank, mindfulness and self-compassion in depression following first episode psychosis.

Gaining awareness of psychosis (i.e., insight) is linked to depression, particularly in the post-acute phase of psychosis. Informed by social rank theory, we examined whether the insight-depression relationship is explained by reduced social rank related to psychosis and whether self-compassion (including uncompassionate self-responding [UCS] and compassionate self-responding [CSR]) and mindfulness buffered the relationship between social rank and depression in individuals with first episode psychosis during the post-acute phase. Participants were 145 young people (Mage  = 20.81; female = 66) with first episode psychosis approaching discharge from an early psychosis intervention centre. Questionnaires and interviews assessed insight, depressive symptoms, perceived social rank, self-compassion, mindfulness and illness severity. Results showed that insight was not significantly associated to depression and thus no mediation analysis was conducted. However, lower perceived social rank was related to higher depression, and this relationship was moderated by self-compassion and, more specifically, UCS. Mindfulness was related to depression but had no moderating effect on social rank and depression. Results supported previous findings that depressive symptoms are common during the post-acute phase. The role of insight in depression for this sample is unclear and may be less important during the post-acute phase than previously considered. Supporting social rank theory, the results suggest that low perceived social rank contributes to depression, and reducing UCS may ameliorate this effect. UCS, social rank and possibly mindfulness may be valuable intervention targets for depression intervention and prevention efforts in the recovery of psychosis.

Factors affecting captive female giraffe stress response: Male presence, small enclosure, and low temperature.

To improve animal welfare based on suitable social housing conditions, it is important to understand the factors that trigger high-stress responses. Wild giraffes live in a fission-fusion society and males and females are rarely in the same herd for a long period. The captive condition of belonging to a herd with the same individuals for months or years is uncommon in nature. To understand the effect of male presence on female stress levels, fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) levels and social interactions in two captive female giraffes were investigated. Additionally, the effect of enclosure size and temperature on fGCM level and social interactions were examined. The results showed no significant difference in the fGCM levels of females based on male presence. The frequency of agonistic behavior by the dominant female toward the subordinate female was significantly increased when a male was present. The subordinate female was significantly less likely to approach the dominant female and showed decreased affiliative and agonistic interactions toward the dominant female when a male was present. The frequencies of agonistic interactions between females were higher in the small enclosure regardless of male presence. Low temperature triggered higher fGCM levels and increased agonistic interaction in an aged female. The findings of this study suggest that these multiple factors should be considered individually to promote the welfare of captive giraffes.

Double trouble: Prenatal immune activation in stress sensitive offspring.

Viral infections during pregnancy are associated with increased incidence of psychiatric disorders in offspring. The pathological outcomes of viral infection appear to be caused by the deleterious effects of innate immune response-associated factors on development of the fetus, which predispose the offspring to pathological conditions in adulthood. The negative impact of viral infections varies substantially between pregnancies. Here, we explored whether differential stress sensitivity underlies the high heterogeneity of immune reactivity and whether this may influence the pathological consequences of maternal immune activation. Using mouse models of social dominance (Dom) and submissiveness (Sub), which possess innate features of stress resilience and vulnerability, respectively, we identified differential immune reactivity to the synthetic analogue of viral double-stranded RNA, Poly(I:C), in Sub and Dom nulliparous and pregnant females. More specifically, we found that Sub females showed an exacerbated pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine response to Poly(I:C) as compared with Dom females. Sub offspring born to Sub mothers (stress sensitive offspring) showed enhanced locomotory response to the non-competitive NMDA antagonist, MK-801, which was potentiated by prenatal Poly(I:C) exposure. Our findings suggest that inherited stress sensitivity may lead to functional changes in glutamatergic signaling, which in turn is further exacerbated by prenatal exposure to viral-like infection. The maternal immunome seems to play a crucial role in these observed phenomena.

Repeatability of endocrine traits and dominance rank in female guinea pigs.

BACKGROUND: Glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisol) are associated with variation in social behavior, and previous studies have linked baseline as well as challenge-induced glucocorticoid concentrations to dominance status. It is known that cortisol response to an acute challenge is repeatable and correlates to social behavior in males of many mammal species. However, it is unclear whether these patterns are also consistent for females. The aim of this study was to investigate whether baseline and response cortisol concentrations are repeatable in female guinea pigs (Cavia aperea f. porcellus) and whether dominance rank is stable and correlated to baseline cortisol concentration and/or cortisol responsiveness. RESULTS: Our results show that cortisol responsiveness (after 1 h: R = 0.635, 95% CI = 0.229, 0.927; after 2 h: R = 0.764, 95% CI = 0.433, 0.951) and dominance rank (R = 0.709, 95% CI = 0.316, 0.935) of females were significantly repeatable after six weeks but not correlated. Baseline cortisol was not repeatable (R = 0, 95% CI = 0, 0.690) and also did not correlate to dominance rank. Furthermore, the difference in repeatability estimates of baseline and response values was due to high within-individual variance of baseline cortisol concentration; the amount of between-individual variance was similar for baseline cortisol and the two measures of cortisol responsiveness. CONCLUSIONS: Females occupying different dominance ranks did not have long-term differences in cortisol concentrations, and cortisol responsiveness does not seem to be significantly involved in the maintenance of dominance rank. Overall, this study reveals the remarkable stability of cortisol responsiveness and dominance rank in a female rodent, and it remains an open question whether the magnitude of cortisol responsiveness is adaptive in social contexts for females.

Variation in inhibitory control does not influence social rank, foraging efficiency, or risk taking, in red junglefowl females.

Individual variation in cognition, seen in many taxa, is not well understood, despite its potential evolutionary consequences. Inhibitory control is an aspect of cognition which differs between individuals. However, how selection could act on this variation remains unclear. First, individual consistency over time of behaviours affected by inhibitory control, and how these behaviours relate to each other, is not well understood. Second, consequences in ecologically relevant contexts of variation in behaviours affected by  inhibitory control, are scarcely investigated. Therefore, we explored the temporal consistency and inter-relatedness of two behaviours influenced by inhibitory control (impulsive action and persistence) and how these link to social rank, foraging efficiency, and risk taking in adult female red junglefowl (Gallus gallus). We measured impulsive action in a detour test, and persistence in both a detour test and a foraging test. Impulsive action and persistence, measured in a detour test, were moderately consistent over time, and positively correlated. This implies that selection could act on inhibitory control via these behaviours, and selection on one behaviour could affect the other. However, we found no evidence of links between inhibitory control and social rank, foraging efficiency, or risk taking. This implies that selection may not act on inhibitory control via these measures, and that, in general, there may be a lack of strong selection on inhibitory control. This, in turn, could help explain individual variation in this aspect of cognition. Future research should explore the specificity of when inhibitory control has implications for individuals, and continue to investigate how variation in cognitive traits influences how individuals behave in contexts with potential evolutionary implications.

Early-life adversity predicts performance and fitness in a wild social carnivore.

Studies on humans indicate that encountering multiple sources of adversity in childhood increases the risk of poor long-term health and premature death. Far less is known about cumulative effects of adversity during early life in wildlife. Focusing on the spotted hyena Crocuta crocuta, a social mammal with small litters, extensive maternal care, slow development and access to resources determined by social rank, we determined the contribution of ecological, maternal, social and demographic factors during early life on performance and fitness, and tested whether the impact of early-life adversity is cumulative. Using longitudinal data from 666 female hyenas in the Serengeti National Park, we determined the early growth rate, survival to adulthood, age at first reproduction (AFR), lifetime reproductive success (LRS) and longevity. We fitted multivariate models in which we tested the effects of environmental factors on these performance measures. We then constructed a cumulative adversity index and fitted models to test the effect of this index on each performance measure. Finally, the value of cumulative adversity models was tested by comparing them to multivariate and single-effect models in which the effect of each environmental factor was considered separately. High maternal rank decreased the AFR of daughters. Singleton and dominant cubs had higher growth rate than subordinate cubs, and singletons also had a higher survival chance to adulthood than subordinates. Daughters of prime age mothers had a higher growth rate, longevity and LRS. Little and heavy rainfall decreased survival to adulthood. Increasing numbers of lactating female clan members decreased growth rate, survival to adulthood and LRS. Cumulative adversity negatively affected short-term performance and LRS. Multivariate models outperformed cumulative adversity and single-effect models for all measures except for AFR and longevity, for which single-effect models performed better. Our results suggest that in some wildlife populations the combination of specific conditions in early life may matter more than the accumulation of adverse conditions as such.

Des études menées chez l'homme indiquent que le fait de rencontrer de multiples sources d'adversité pendant l'enfance augmente le risque de troubles de la santé à long terme et de décès prématuré. On en sait beaucoup moins sur les effets cumulatifs de l'adversité en début de vie chez les animaux sauvages. En nous concentrant sur la hyène tachetée Crocuta crocuta, un mammifère social avec des portées de petite taille, des soins maternels intensifs, un développement lent et un accès aux ressources déterminé par le rang social, nous avons déterminé la contribution des facteurs écologiques, maternels, sociaux et démographiques en début de vie sur la performance et le succès reproducteur, et nous avons testé si l'adversité précoce a un effet cumulatif. En utilisant les données longitudinales de 666 hyènes femelles dans le parc national du Serengeti, nous avons calculé le taux de croissance précoce, la survie à l'âge adulte, l'âge à la première reproduction, le succès reproducteur et la longévité. Nous avons utilisé des modèles multivariés dans lesquels nous avons testé les effets des facteurs environnementaux sur ces mesures de performance. Nous avons ensuite construit un indice de risque cumulatif et utilisé des modèles pour tester l'effet de cet indice sur chaque mesure de performance. Enfin, nous avons testé la valeur de ces modèles en les comparant aux modèles multivariés et simples dans lesquels l'effet de chaque facteur environnemental était considéré séparément. Un rang maternel élevé diminue l'âge à la première reproduction des filles. Les femelles sans frère ou sœur ou dominantes dans une portée de jumeaux ont un taux de croissance plus élevé que les femelles subordonnées, et les femelles sans frère ou sœur ont également une plus grande chance de survie à l'âge adulte que les subordonnées. Les filles de mères dans la fleur de l'âge montrent de meilleurs taux de croissance, longévité et succès reproducteur. Des précipitations faibles ou fortes réduisent la survie à l'âge adulte. L'augmentation du nombre de femelles allaitantes dans le clan réduit le taux de croissance, la survie à l'âge adulte et le succès reproducteur. L'adversité précoce cumulée a un effet négatif sur la performance à court terme et le succès reproducteur. Les modèles multivariés sont toutefois plus performants que les modèles avec l'indice de risque cumulatif et plus performants que les modèles simples pour toutes les mesures, à l'exception de l'âge à la première reproduction et de la longévité, pour lesquelles les modèles simples sont plus performants. Nos résultats suggèrent que chez certaines populations sauvages, la combinaison de conditions spécifiques rencontrées en début de vie peut avoir plus d'importance que l'accumulation de conditions défavorables en tant que telles.

The association between entrapment and depression among migrant workers in China: a social rank theory based study.

BACKGROUND: Migrant workers are a group susceptible for depression evolution due to occupational maladaptive triggers. The social rank theory illustrates the pathology process from defensive adaptation to depression, pointing out the early prevention of depression by discovering entrapment. This study aims to reveal the relationship between migrant workers' entrapment and depressive symptoms. METHODS: A total of 1805 migrant workers in Shenzhen were recruited by stratified multi-stage sampling. Sample's demographic, behavioral and psychosocial characteristics were described and analyzed to reveal the relationship between entrapment and depressive symptoms. The Receiver Operator Characteristic was performed to find the optimal cut-off point of Entrapment Scale for predicting depressive symptoms. RESULTS: In the binary logistic regression of sociodemographic variables, migrant workers who were married (univariate odds ratio (ORu) = 0.69, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) = 0.56-0.84), owned 1 or 2 children (ORu = 0.71, 95% CI = 0.58-0.86), had been working over 10 years (ORu = 0.71, 95% CI = 0.54-0.95), earned > 4999 yuan per month (ORu = 0.68, 95% CI = 0.47-0.99; multivariate odds ratio (ORm) = 0.57, 95% CI = 0.38-0.87) or with low risks of alcohol use disorders (ORu = 0.51, 95% CI = 0.34-0.75) had lower risks of depressive symptoms. After adjusted the aforementioned significant sociodemographic variables, migrant workers with severer entrapment were more likely to have depressive symptoms (adjusted odds ratio (ORa) = 1.13, 95% CI = 1.12-1.15). Besides, the study proved the reliability and validity of the Chinese version Entrapment Scale, preferring a two-dimensional structure, and 11 was the optimal cut-off value of this scale for predicting depressive symptoms among migrant workers. CONCLUSIONS: This result indicates the potential value of entrapment according to the social rank theory on facilitating early prevention of migrant works' depression and the application value of Entrapment Scale for effectively measuring mental status among migrant workers.

Memory bias for social hierarchical information is modulated by perceived social rank.

Hierarchies pervade human society, characterising its members along diverse dimensions ranging from their abilities or skills in a particular domain to their economic status or physical stature. One intriguing aspect of the centrality of hierarchies, relative to egalitarian constructs, is that hierarchically-organised social information appears to be remembered more easily than non-hierarchically-organised information. However, it is not yet clear how one's social rank within a hierarchy influences processing. In a pre-registered study with 66 healthy participants, we examined memory recall for hierarchical information when participants themselves were positioned higher in the hierarchy versus lower in the hierarchy, both relative to an egalitarian control condition. The results replicate previous work showing that hierarchical information is memorised faster relative to the egalitarian control. Importantly, this effect was modulated by the participant's position within the hierarchy, with higher positioned participants memorising information faster than lower-positioned participants. This study provides new evidence showing biases in memory will favour hierarchical information if modulated by perceptions of one's own social rank.

The impact of dynamic status changes within competitive rank-ordered hierarchies.

Jockeying and competing for higher status is an inherent feature of rank-ordered hierarchies. Despite theoretically acknowledging rank changes within hierarchies, the extant literature has ignored the role of competitors' dynamic movements on a focal actor's resulting behavior. By using a dynamic lens to examine these movement in competitive situations, we examine how positive change in a competitor's rank-that is, positive status momentum-affects a focal actor's psychology and resulting performance. We consider the real-world contexts of 5.2 million observations of chess tournaments and 117,762 observations of professional tennis players and find that a focal actor's performance in both cognitive and physical competitions is negatively impacted when facing a competitor with positive momentum. Additionally, 4 experimental studies reveal that a competitor's positive momentum results in the focal actor's positive projection of the competitor's future rank, which, in turn, increases the psychological threat for the actor. Collectively, our findings advance the social hierarchy literature by helping to elucidate the manner in which rank-ordered hierarchies are negotiated and disrupted over time.

Antioxidant capacity differs across social ranks and with ascension in males of a group-living fish.

Animals that live in groups often form hierarchies in which an individual's behaviour and physiology varies based on their social rank. Occasionally, a subordinate can ascend into a dominant position and the ascending individual must make rapid behavioural and physiological adjustments to solidify their dominance. These periods of social transition and instability can be stressful and ascending individuals often incur large metabolic costs that could influence their oxidative status. Most previous investigations examining the link between oxidative status and the social environment have done so under stable social conditions and have evaluated oxidative status in a single tissue. Therefore, evaluations of how oxidative status is regulated across multiple tissues during periods of social flux would greatly enhance our understanding of the relationship between oxidative status and the social environment. Here, we assessed how antioxidant capacity in three tissues (brain, gonad, and muscle) varied among dominant, subordinate, and ascending males of the group-living cichlid fish, Neolamprologus pulcher. Antioxidant capacity in the brain and muscle of ascending males was intermediate to that of dominant (highest levels) and subordinate males (lowest levels) and correlated with differences in social and locomotor behaviours, respectively. Gonad antioxidant capacity was lower in ascending males than in dominant males. However, gonad antioxidant capacity was positively correlated with the size of ascending males' gonads suggesting that ascending males may increase gonad antioxidant capacity as they develop their gonads. Overall, our results highlight the widespread physiological consequences of social ascension and emphasize the importance of tissue-specific measures of oxidative status.

Aggressive interactions and consistency of dominance hierarchies of the native and nonnative cichlid fishes of the Balsas basin.

Dominance hierarchies are generally established based on the levels of aggressiveness that animals present. Frequently, animals fight to establish a dominance hierarchy and obtain a disputed resource. The Mexican mojarra Cichlasoma istlanum is a native species of the Balsas river basin and coexists there with four nonnative cichlids: tilapia Oreochromis sp., convict cichlid Amatitlania nigrofasciata, spotcheek cichlid Thorichthys maculipinnis, and green terror Andinoacara rivulatus. These five cichlid species compete for spaces for reproduction, feeding, and shelter and frequently engage in aggressive interactions to obtain these resources. We quantified dominance indices to evaluate the hierarchical structure of dominance among these five cichlids and the duration of aggressive behaviors of the Mexican mojarra during experimental contests between the native species and each of the four nonnative species. The Mexican mojarra was consistently dominant over the other four cichlid species, performing a larger number of aggressive behaviors and investing more time in attacking than the nonnative cichlids, which resulted in a higher hierarchical position. Our results show that the native fish, Mexican mojarra, established dominance over all four nonnative cichlid fish of the Balsas basin. Thus, the establishment of nonnative cichlid species in the Balsas basin is likely associated with factors other than behavioral dominance.

Love in a time of anti-Blackness: social rank, attachment, and race in psychotherapy.

This paper draws on critical race theory and research on attachment, social rank and dehumanization to theorize the implications of addressing anti-Blackness in psychotherapy with both Black and non-Black clients in the context of White Supremacy. Drawing on and critiquing a recent review of attachment theory and race, the author draws on historical and empirical research outlining the contours of a racial capitalist world. Recontextualizing attachment theory through this critical race theory lens, it will be argued psychotherapy must address anti-Blackness with both Black and non-Black clients, redefining therapeutic action not only as the provision of repair of interpersonal ruptures, but also as the capacity to mentalize about socio-historical ruptures, allowing space to clarify and pursue one's values despite an anti-Black, capitalist and White Supremacist world. This paper will provide case examples illustrating these principles with Black and non-Black clients and conclude with their clinical and political implications.