Epigenetics of Breast Cancer: Clinical Status of Epi-drugs and Phytochemicals.

Epigenetics refers to alterations in gene expression due to differential histone modifications and DNA methylation at promoter sites of genes. Epigenetic alterations are reversible and are heritable during somatic cell division, but do not involve changes in nucleotide sequence. Epigenetic regulation plays a critical role in normal growth and embryonic development by controlling transcriptional activities of several genes. In last two decades, these modifications have been well recognized to be involved in tumor initiation and progression, which has motivated many investigators to incorporate this novel field in cancer drug development. Recently, growing number of epigenetic changes have been reported that are involved in the regulations of genes involved in breast tumor growth and metastasis. Drugs possessing epigenetic modulatory activities known as epi-drugs, mainly the inhibitors of histone deacetylases (HDACs) and DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs). Some of these drugs are undergoing different clinical trials for breast cancer treatment. Several phytochemicals such as green tea polyphenols, curcumin, genistein, resveratrol and sulforaphane have also been shown to alter epigenetic modifications in multiple cancer types including breast cancer. In this chapter, we summarize the role of epigenetic changes in breast cancer progression and metastasis. We have also discussed about various epigenetic modulators possessing chemopreventive and therapeutic efficacy against breast cancer with future perspectives.

Centchroman altered the expressions of tumor-related genes through active chromatin modifications in mammary cancer.

Centchroman (CC), a female oral contraceptive, has been shown to possess breast anti-cancer activities. Recently, we have shown CC-mediated antimetastatic effect through reversal of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in breast cancer. The loss of tumor suppressor genes (TSGs) has been shown to promote EMT in breast cancer. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated the effect of CC-treatment on the expression of tumor-related genes including both tumor suppressor- and tumor promoter genes in breast cancer. CC treatment resulted in G0 /G1 phase cell cycle arrest in human breast cancer MDA-MB-231, SK-BR-3, and ZR-75-1 cells with the concomitant induction of TSGs such as p21WAF1/CIP1 , p16INK4a , and p27Kip1 . In addition, CC treatment also resulted in the downregulation of tumor promoter gene, human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT). The induction of TSGs and downregulation of hTERT was found to be correlated with decreased expression levels of histone deacetylases (HDACs) and DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs). Further, mechanistic studies revealed CC-induced global DNA demethylation and alterations in the enrichment of chromatin modification markers at the promoters of p21 and hTERT. These in vitro results were corroborated with in vivo findings in 4T1-syngeneic mouse model, where CC-treatment resulted in tumor growth reduction accompanied with the induction of TSGs and alterations in the expression levels of HDACs, DNMT1, and histone modification markers. Overall, our findings suggest that CC-treatment induces the expression of TSGs and downregulates hTERT through histone modifications and DNA methylation changes. Therefore, CC could be further developed into a promising drug candidate against breast cancer. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Epigenetics of cancer stem cells: Pathways and therapeutics.

BACKGROUND: Epigenetic alterations including DNA methylation and histone modifications are the key factors in the differentiation of stem cells into different tissue subtypes. The generation of cancer stem cells (CSCs) in the process of carcinogenesis may also involve similar kind of epigenetic reprogramming where, in contrast, it leads to the loss of expression of genes specific to the differentiated state and regaining of stem cell-specific characteristics. The most important predicament with treatment of cancers includes the non-responsive quiescent CSC. SCOPE OF REVIEW: The distinctive capabilities of the CSCs make cancer treatment even more difficult as this population of cells tends to remain quiescent for longer intervals and then gets reactivated leading to tumor relapse. Therefore, the current review is aimed to focus on recent advances in understanding the relation of epigenetic reprogramming to the generation, self-renewal and proliferation of CSCs. MAJOR CONCLUSION: CSC-targeted therapeutic approaches would improve the chances of patient survival by reducing the frequency of tumor relapse. Differentiation therapy is an emerging therapeutic approach in which the CSCs are induced to differentiate from their quiescent state to a mature differentiated form, through activation of differentiation-related signalling pathways, miRNA-mediated alteration and epigenetic differentiation therapy. Thus, understanding the origin of CSC and their epigenetic regulation is crucial to develop treatment strategy against not only for the heterogeneous population of cancer cells but also to CSCs. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: Characterizing the epigenetic marks of CSCs and the associated signalling cascades might help in developing therapeutic strategies against chemo-resistant cancers.

Corrigendum: Improving anti-tumor efficacy of low-dose Vincristine in rhabdomyosarcoma via the combination therapy with FOXM1 inhibitor RCM1.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1112859.].

Improving anti-tumor efficacy of low-dose Vincristine in rhabdomyosarcoma via the combination therapy with FOXM1 inhibitor RCM1.

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is a highly metastatic soft-tissue sarcoma that often develops resistance to current therapies, including vincristine. Since the existing treatments have not significantly improved survival, there is a critical need for new therapeutic approaches for RMS patients. FOXM1, a known oncogene, is highly expressed in RMS, and is associated with the worst prognosis in RMS patients. In the present study, we found that the combination treatment with specific FOXM1 inhibitor RCM1 and low doses of vincristine is more effective in increasing apoptosis and decreasing RMS cell proliferation in vitro compared to single drugs alone. Since RCM1 is highly hydrophobic, we developed innovative nanoparticle delivery system containing poly-beta-amino-esters and folic acid (NPFA), which efficiently delivers RCM1 to mouse RMS tumors in vivo. The combination of low doses of vincristine together with intravenous administration of NPFA nanoparticles containing RCM1 effectively reduced RMS tumor volumes, increased tumor cell death and decreased tumor cell proliferation in RMS tumors compared to RCM1 or vincristine alone. The combination therapy was non-toxic as demonstrated by liver metabolic panels using peripheral blood serum. Using RNA-seq of dissected RMS tumors, we identified Chac1 as a uniquely downregulated gene after the combination treatment. Knockdown of Chac1 in RMS cells in vitro recapitulated the effects of the combination therapy. Altogether, combination treatment with low doses of vincristine and nanoparticle delivery of FOXM1 inhibitor RCM1 in a pre-clinical model of RMS has superior anti-tumor effects and decreases CHAC1 while reducing vincristine toxicity.

Demonstration of Safety in Wild Type Mice of npFOXF1, a Novel Nanoparticle-Based Gene Therapy for Alveolar Capillary Dysplasia with Misaligned Pulmonary Veins.

Introduction: Alveolar Capillary Dysplasia with Misaligned Pulmonary Veins (ACDMPV) is a fatal congenital disease resulting from a pulmonary vascular endothelial deficiency of FOXF1, producing abnormal morphogenesis of alveolar capillaries, malpositioned pulmonary veins and disordered development of lung lobes. Affected neonates suffer from cyanosis, severe breathing insufficiency, pulmonary hypertension, and death typically within days to weeks after birth. Currently, no treatment exists for ACDMPV, although recent murine research in the Kalinichenko lab demonstrates nanoparticle delivery improves survival and reconstitutes normal alveolar-capillary architecture. The aim of the present study is to investigate the safety of intravenous administration of FOXF1-expressing PEI-PEG nanoparticles (npFOXF1), our pioneering treatment for ACDMPV. Methods: npFOXF1 was constructed, validated, and subsequently administered in a single dose to postnatal day 14 (P14) mice via retro-orbital injection. Biochemical, serologic, and histologic safety were monitored at postnatal day 16 (P16) and postnatal day 21 (P21). Results: With treatment we observed no lethality, and the general condition of mice revealed no obvious abnormalities. Serum chemistry, whole blood, and histologic toxicity was assayed on P16 and P21 and revealed no abnormality. Discussion: In conclusion, npFOXF1 has a very good safety profile and combined with preceding studies showing therapeutic efficacy, npFOXF1 can be considered as a good candidate therapy for ACDMPV in human neonates.

Ultra-high dose-rate proton FLASH improves tumor control.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Proton radiotherapy (PRT) offers potential benefits over other radiation modalities, including photon and electron radiotherapy. Increasing the rate at which proton radiation is delivered may provide a therapeutic advantage. Here, we compared the efficacy of conventional proton therapy (CONVpr) to ultrahigh dose-rate proton therapy, FLASHpr, in a mouse model of non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLC). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Mice bearing orthotopic lung tumors received thoracic radiation therapy using CONVpr (<0.05 Gy/s) and FLASHpr (>60 Gy/s) dose rates. RESULTS: Compared to CONVpr, FLASHpr was more effective in reducing tumor burden and decreasing tumor cell proliferation. Furthermore, FLASHpr was more efficient in increasing the infiltration of cytotoxic CD8+ T-lymphocytes inside the tumor while simultaneously reducing the percentage of immunosuppressive regulatory T-cells (Tregs) among T-lymphocytes. Also, compared to CONVpr, FLASHpr was more effective in decreasing pro-tumorigenic M2-like macrophages in lung tumors, while increasing infiltration of anti-tumor M1-like macrophages. Finally, FLASHpr treatment reduced expression of checkpoint inhibitors in lung tumors, indicating reduced immune tolerance. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that FLASH dose-rate proton delivery modulates the immune system to improve tumor control and might thus be a promising new alternative to conventional dose rates for NSCLC treatment.

Lung endothelial cells regulate pulmonary fibrosis through FOXF1/R-Ras signaling.

Pulmonary fibrosis results from dysregulated lung repair and involves multiple cell types. The role of endothelial cells (EC) in lung fibrosis is poorly understood. Using single cell RNA-sequencing we identified endothelial transcription factors involved in lung fibrogenesis, including FOXF1, SMAD6, ETV6 and LEF1. Focusing on FOXF1, we found that FOXF1 is decreased in EC within human idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) and mouse bleomycin-injured lungs. Endothelial-specific Foxf1 inhibition in mice increased collagen depositions, promoted lung inflammation, and impaired R-Ras signaling. In vitro, FOXF1-deficient EC increased proliferation, invasion and activation of human lung fibroblasts, and stimulated macrophage migration by secreting IL-6, TNFα, CCL2 and CXCL1. FOXF1 inhibited TNFα and CCL2 through direct transcriptional activation of Rras gene promoter. Transgenic overexpression or endothelial-specific nanoparticle delivery of Foxf1 cDNA decreased pulmonary fibrosis in bleomycin-injured mice. Nanoparticle delivery of FOXF1 cDNA can be considered for future therapies in IPF.

FOXF1 is required for the oncogenic properties of PAX3-FOXO1 in rhabdomyosarcoma.

The PAX3-FOXO1 fusion protein is the key oncogenic driver in fusion positive rhabdomyosarcoma (FP-RMS), an aggressive soft tissue malignancy with a particularly poor prognosis. Identifying key downstream targets of PAX3-FOXO1 will provide new therapeutic opportunities for treatment of FP-RMS. Herein, we demonstrate that Forkhead Box F1 (FOXF1) transcription factor is uniquely expressed in FP-RMS and is required for FP-RMS tumorigenesis. The PAX3-FOXO1 directly binds to FOXF1 enhancers and induces FOXF1 gene expression. CRISPR/Cas9 mediated inactivation of either FOXF1 coding sequence or FOXF1 enhancers suppresses FP-RMS tumorigenesis even in the presence of PAX3-FOXO1 oncogene. Knockdown or genetic knockout of FOXF1 induces myogenic differentiation in PAX3-FOXO1-positive FP-RMS. Over-expression of FOXF1 decreases myogenic differentiation in primary human myoblasts. In FP-RMS tumor cells, FOXF1 protein binds chromatin near enhancers associated with FP-RMS gene signature. FOXF1 cooperates with PAX3-FOXO1 and E-box transcription factors MYOD1 and MYOG to regulate FP-RMS-specific gene expression. Altogether, FOXF1 functions downstream of PAX3-FOXO1 to promote FP-RMS tumorigenesis.

FOXM1 nuclear transcription factor translocates into mitochondria and inhibits oxidative phosphorylation.

Forkhead box M1 (FOXM1), a nuclear transcription factor that activates cell cycle regulatory genes, is highly expressed in a majority of human cancers. The function of FOXM1 independent of nuclear transcription is unknown. In the present study, we found the FOXM1 protein inside the mitochondria. Using site-directed mutagenesis, we generated FOXM1 mutant proteins that localized to distinct cellular compartments, uncoupling the nuclear and mitochondrial functions of FOXM1. Directing FOXM1 into the mitochondria decreased mitochondrial mass, membrane potential, respiration, and electron transport chain (ETC) activity. In mitochondria, the FOXM1 directly bound to and increased the pentatricopeptide repeat domain 1 (PTCD1) protein, a mitochondrial leucine-specific tRNA binding protein that inhibits leucine-rich ETC complexes. Mitochondrial FOXM1 did not change cellular proliferation. Thus, FOXM1 translocates into mitochondria and inhibits mitochondrial respiration by increasing PTCD1. We identify a new paradigm that FOXM1 regulates mitochondrial homeostasis in a process independent of nuclear transcription.

Centchroman prevents metastatic colonization of breast cancer cells and disrupts angiogenesis via inhibition of RAC1/PAK1/ß-catenin signaling axis.

AIMS: We have previously reported that Centchroman (CC), an oral contraceptive drug, inhibits breast cancer progression and metastasis. In this study, we investigated whether CC inhibits local invasion of tumor cells and/or their metastatic colonization with detailed underlying mechanisms. MAIN METHODS: The effect of CC on the experimental metastasis and spontaneous metastasis was demonstrated by using tail-vein and orthotopic 4T1-syngeneic mouse tumor models, respectively. The anti-angiogenic potential of CC was evaluated using well established in vitro and in vivo models. The role of RAC1/PAK1/ß-catenin signaling axis in the metastasis was investigated and validated using siRNA-mediated knockdown of PAK1 as well as by pharmacological PAK1-inhibitor. KEY FINDINGS: The oral administration of CC significantly suppressed the formation of metastatic lung nodules in the 4T1-syngeneic orthotopic as well as experimental metastatic models. More importantly, CC treatment suppressed the tube formation and migration capacities of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) and inhibited pre-existing vasculature as well as the formation of neovasculature. The suppression of migration and invasion capacities of metastatic breast cancer cells upon CC treatment was associated with the inhibition of small GTPases (Rac1 and Cdc42) concomitant with the downregulation of PAK1 and downstream ß-catenin signaling. In addition, CC upregulated the expression of miR-145, which is known to target PAK1. SIGNIFICANCE: This study warrants the repurposing of CC as a potential therapeutic agent against metastatic breast cancer.

The FOXM1 Inhibitor RCM-1 Decreases Carcinogenesis and Nuclear ß-Catenin.

The oncogenic transcription factor FOXM1 has been previously shown to play a critical role in carcinogenesis by inducing cellular proliferation in multiple cancer types. A small-molecule compound, Robert Costa Memorial drug-1 (RCM-1), has been recently identified from high-throughput screen as an inhibitor of FOXM1 in vitro and in mouse model of allergen-mediated lung inflammation. In the present study, we examined antitumor activities of RCM-1 using tumor models. Treatment with RCM-1 inhibited tumor cell proliferation as evidenced by increased cell-cycle duration. Confocal imaging of RCM-1-treated tumor cells indicated that delay in cellular proliferation was concordant with inhibition of FOXM1 nuclear localization in these cells. RCM-1 reduced the formation and growth of tumor cell colonies in the colony formation assay. In animal models, RCM-1 treatment inhibited growth of mouse rhabdomyosarcoma Rd76-9, melanoma B16-F10, and human H2122 lung adenocarcinoma. RCM-1 decreased FOXM1 protein in the tumors, reduced tumor cell proliferation, and increased tumor cell apoptosis. RCM-1 decreased protein levels and nuclear localization of ß-catenin, and inhibited protein-protein interaction between ß-catenin and FOXM1 in cultured tumor cells and in vivo Altogether, our study provides important evidence of antitumor potential of the small-molecule compound RCM-1, suggesting that RCM-1 can be a promising candidate for anticancer therapy.

Lung Cancer Stem Cells: An Epigenetic Perspective.

Lung cancer remains the major cause of human mortality among all the cancer types despite the colossal amount of efforts to prevent the cancer onset and to provide the appropriate cure. Recent reports have identified that important contributors of lung cancer-related mortality are the drug resistance and aggressive tumor relapse, the characteristics contributed by the presence of lung cancer stem cells (CSCs). The identification of lung CSCs is inherently complex due to the quiescent nature of lung epithelium, which makes the distinction between the normal lung epithelium and lung CSCs difficult. Recently, multiple researches have helped in the identification of lung CSCs based on the presence or absence of certain specific types of stem cell markers. Maintenance of lung CSCs is chiefly mediated through the epigenetic modifications of their genome. In this review, we will discuss about the origin of lung CSCs and the role of epigenetic modifications in their maintenance. We will also discuss in brief the major lung CSC markers and the therapeutic approaches to selectively target this population of cells.

Identification of potent inhibitors of DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) through a pharmacophore-based virtual screening approach.

DNA methylation is an epigenetic change that results in the addition of a methyl group at the carbon-5 position of cytosine residues. DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) inhibitors can suppress tumour growth and have significant therapeutic value. However, the established inhibitors are limited in their application due to their substantial cytotoxicity. Additionally, the standard drugs for DNMT inhibition are non-selective cytosine analogues with considerable cytotoxic side-effects. In the present study, we have designed a workflow by integrating various ligand-based and structure-based approaches to discover new agents active against DNMT1. We have derived a pharmacophore model with the help of available DNMT1 inhibitors. Utilising this model, we performed the virtual screening of Maybridge chemical library and the identified hits were then subsequently filtered based on the Naïve Bayesian classification model. The molecules that have returned from this classification model were subjected to ensemble based docking. We have selected 10 molecules for the biological assay by inspecting the interactions portrayed by these molecules. Three out of the ten tested compounds have shown DNMT1 inhibitory activity. These compounds were also found to demonstrate potential inhibition of cellular proliferation in human breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells. In the present study, we have utilized a multi-step virtual screening protocol to identify inhibitors of DNMT1, which offers a starting point to develop more potent DNMT1 inhibitors as anti-cancer agents.

Epigenetic targets in cancer and aging: dietary and therapeutic interventions.

INTRODUCTION: Epigenetic regulation plays a critical role in normal growth and embryonic development by controlling the transcriptional activities of several genes. A growing number of epigenetic changes have been reported in the regulation of key genes involved in cancer and aging. Drugs with epigenetic modulatory activities, mainly histone deacetylase and DNA methyltransferase inhibitors, have received wider attention in aging and cancer research. AREAS COVERED: In this review, we summarize the major epigenetic alterations in cancer and aging, with special emphasis on possible therapeutic targets and interventions by dietary as well as bioactive phytochemicals. EXPERT OPINION: Some epigenetic-targeting drugs have received FDA approval and many others are undergoing different phases of clinical trials for cancer therapy. In addition to the synthetic compounds, several bioactive phytochemicals and dietary interventions, such as caloric restriction, have been shown to possess epigenetic modulatory activities in multiple cancers. These epigenetic modulators have been shown to delay aging and minimize the risk of cancer both in preclinical as well as clinical models. Therefore, knowledge of bioactive phytochemicals along with dietary interventions can be utilized for cancer prevention and therapy both alone and with existing drugs to achieve optimum efficacy.

Cucurbitacin B inhibits the stemness and metastatic abilities of NSCLC via downregulation of canonical Wnt/ß-catenin signaling axis.

Lack of effective anti-metastatic drugs creates a major hurdle for metastatic lung cancer therapy. For successful lung cancer treatment, there is a strong need of newer therapeutics with metastasis-inhibitory potential. In the present study, we determined the anti-metastatic and anti-angiogenic potential of a natural plant triterpenoid, Cucurbitacin B (CuB) against non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) both in vitro and in vivo. CuB demonstrated a strong anti-migratory and anti-invasive ability against metastatic NSCLC at nanomolar concentrations. CuB also showed significant tumor angiogenesis-inhibitory effects as evidenced by the inhibition of migratory, invasive and tube-forming capacities of human umbilical vein endothelial cells. CuB-mediated inhibition of angiogenesis was validated by the inhibition of pre-existing vasculature in chick embryo chorio-allantoic membrane and matrigel plugs. Similarly, CuB inhibited the migratory behavior of TGF-ß1-induced experimental EMT model. The CuB-mediated inhibition of metastasis and angiogenesis was attributable to the downregulation of Wnt/ß-catenin signaling axis, validated by siRNA-knockdown of Wnt3 and Wnt3a. The CuB-mediated downregulation of Wnt/ß-catenin signaling was also validated using 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK)-induced lung tumorigenesis model in vivo. Collectively, our findings suggest that CuB inhibited the metastatic abilities of NSCLC through the inhibition of Wnt/ß-catenin signaling axis.

Cucurbitacin B inhibits breast cancer metastasis and angiogenesis through VEGF-mediated suppression of FAK/MMP-9 signaling axis.

Available breast cancer therapeutic strategies largely target the primary tumor but are ineffective against tumor metastasis and angiogenesis. In our current study, we determined the effect of Cucurbitacin B (CuB), a plant triterpenoid, on the metastatic and angiogenic potential of breast cancer cells. CuB was found to inhibit cellular proliferation and induce apoptosis in breast cancer cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Further, CuB-treatment significantly inhibited the migratory and invasive potential of highly metastatic breast cancer MDA-MB-231 and 4T1 cells at sub-IC50 concentrations, where no significant apoptosis was observed. CuB was also found to inhibit migratory, invasive and tube-forming capacities of HUVECs in vitro. In addition, inhibition of pre-existing vasculature in chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane ex vivo further supports the anti-angiogenic effect of CuB. CuB-mediated anti-metastatic and anti-angiogenic effects were associated with the downregulation of VEGF/FAK/MMP-9 signaling, which has been validated by using FAK-inhibitor (FI-14). CuB-treatment resulted in a significant inhibition of VEGF-induced phosphorylation of FAK and MMP-9 expressions similar to the action of FI-14. CuB was also found to decrease the micro-vessel density as evidenced by the decreased expression of CD31, a marker for neovasculature. Further, CuB-treatment inhibited tumor growth, lung metastasis and angiogenesis in a highly metastatic 4T1-syngeneic mouse mammary cancer. Collectively, our findings suggest that CuB inhibited breast cancer metastasis and angiogenesis, at least in part, through the downregulation of VEGF/FAK/MMP-9 signaling.

Centchroman suppresses breast cancer metastasis by reversing epithelial-mesenchymal transition via downregulation of HER2/ERK1/2/MMP-9 signaling.

Metastatic spread during carcinogenesis worsens disease prognosis and accelerates the cancer progression. Therefore, newer therapeutic options with higher specificity toward metastatic cancer are required. Centchroman (CC), a female oral contraceptive, has previously been reported to possess antiproliferative and proapoptotic activities in human breast cancer cells. Here, we investigated the effect of CC-treatment against breast cancer metastasis and associated molecular mechanism using in vitro and in vivo models. CC significantly inhibited the proliferation of human and mouse mammary cancer cells. CC-treatment also inhibited migration and invasion capacities of highly metastatic MDA-MB-231 and 4T1 cells, at sub-IC50 concentrations. Inhibition of cell migration and invasion was found to be associated with the reversal of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) as observed by the upregulation of epithelial markers and downregulation of mesenchymal markers as well as decreased activities of matrix metalloproteinases. Experimental EMT induced by exposure to TGFß/TNFα in nontumorigenic human mammary epithelial MCF10A cells was also reversed by CC as evidenced by morphological changes and modulation in the expression levels of EMT-markers. CC-mediated inhibition of cellular migration was, at least partially, mediated through inhibition of ERK1/2 signaling, which was further validated by using MEK1/2 inhibitor (PD0325901). Furthermore, CC-treatment resulted in suppression of tumor growth and lung metastasis in 4T1-syngeneic mouse model. Collectively, our findings suggest that CC-treatment at higher doses specifically induces cellular apoptosis and inhibits cellular proliferation; whereas at lower doses, it inhibits cellular migration and invasion. Therefore, CC could further be developed as an effective drug candidate against metastatic breast cancer.

Telomeric Repeat Containing RNA (TERRA): Aging and Cancer.

Telomeric repeat containing RNAs (TERRA) are small RNA molecules synthesized from telomeric regions which were previously considered as silent genomic domains. In normal cells, these RNAs are transcribed in a direction from subtelomeric region towards the chromosome ends, but in case of cancer cells, their expression remains limited or absent. Telomerase is a rate limiting enzyme for cellular senescence, cancer and aging. Most of the studies deal with the manipulation of telomerase enzyme in cancer and aging either by synthetic oligonucleotide or by natural phytochemicals. Here, we collected evidences and discussed intensely about the bio-molecular structure of TERRA, naturally occurring ligands of telomerase, and their genetic and epigenetic regulations in aging associated diseases. Due to their capability to act as naturally occurring ligands of telomerase, these RNAs can overcome the limitations possessed by synthetic oligonucleotides, which are aimed against telomerase. Drugs specifically targeting TERRA molecules could modulate telomerase-mediated telomere lengthening. Thus, targeting TERRA-mediated regulation of telomerase would be a promising therapeutic strategy against cancer and age-associated diseases.

Epigenetic reactivation of p21CIP1/WAF1 and KLOTHO by a combination of bioactive dietary supplements is partially ERα-dependent in ERα-negative human breast cancer cells.

Available treatment strategies against estrogen receptor (ER)-negative breast cancer patients are limited due to their poor response to hormonal therapy. We have shown previously that the combinations of green tea polyphenols (GTPs), a dietary DNA methyltransferase inhibitor, and sulforaphane (SFN), a dietary histone deacetylase inhibitor, reactivate ERα expression in ERα-negative MDA-MB-231 cells. Here, we investigated the functional significance of ERα reactivation in the reactivation of silenced tumor suppressor genes (TSGs) in ERα-negative human breast cancer cells. We found that the treatment of MDA-MB-231 cells with the combinations of GTPs and SFN leads to the reactivation of silenced TSGs such as p21(CIP1/WAF1) and KLOTHO through active chromatin modifications. Further, GTPs- and SFN-mediated reactivation of TSGs was, at least in part, dependent on ERα reactivation in ERα-negative MDA-MB-231 cells. Collectively, our findings suggest that a novel combination of bioactive dietary supplements could further be explored as an effective therapeutic option against hormonal refractory breast cancer.