Alteration of the glycolipid binding specificity of the pig edema toxin from globotetraosyl to globotriaosyl ceramide alters in vivo tissue targetting and results in a verotoxin 1-like disease in pigs.

All members of the verotoxin (VT) family specifically recognize globo-series glycolipids on the surface of susceptible cells. Those toxins that are associated with human disease, VT1, VT2, and VT2c, bind to globotriaosyl ceramide (Gb3) while VT2e, which is associated with edema disease of swine, binds preferentially to globotetraosyl ceramide (Gb4). We were recently able to identify, using site-directed mutagenesis, amino acids in the binding subunit of these toxins that are important in defining their glycosphingolipid (GSL) binding specificity (Tyrrell, G. J., K. Ramotar, B. Boyd, B. W. Toye, C. A. Lingwood, and J. L. Brunton. 1992. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 89:524). The concomitant mutation of Gln64 and Lys66 in the VT2e binding subunit to the corresponding residues (Glu and Gln, respectively) found in VT2 effectively converted the GSL binding specificity of the mutant toxin from Gb4 to Gb3 in vitro. We now report that the altered carbohydrate recognition of the mutant toxin (termed GT3) has biological significance, resulting in a unique disease after intravascular injection into pigs as compared with classical VT2e-induced edema disease. The tissue localization of radiolabeled GT3 after intravascular injection was elevated in neural tissues compared with VT2e accumulation, while localization of GT3 to the gastrointestinal tract was relatively reduced. Accordingly, the pathological lesions after challenge with GT3 involved gross edema of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain stem, while purified VT2e caused hemorrhage and edema of the cerebellum, and submucosa of the stomach and large intestine. In addition, both radiolabeled toxins bound extensively to tissues not directly involved in the pathology of disease. VT2e, unlike GT3 or VT1, bound extensively to red cells, which have high levels of Gb4. The overall tissue distribution of VT2e was thus found to be influenced by regional blood flow to each organ and not solely by the Gb4 levels of these tissues. Conversely, the distribution of GT3 (and VT1), which cleared more rapidly from the circulation, correlated with respective tissue Gb3 levels rather than blood flow. These studies indicate the primary role of carbohydrate binding specificity in determining systemic pathology, suggest that the red cells act as a toxin carrier in edema disease, and indicate that red cell binding does not protect against the pathology of systemic verotoxemia.

[The apoptosis of vero cells induced by Shiga toxin 2e].

OBJECTIVE: Shiga-like toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) causes edema disease in piglets and hemolytic uremic syndrome in human. Shiga-like toxins (Stxs) produced by STEC induce mammalian cells death via either necrosis or apoptosis. However, the ability of stx2e, separated from edema disease (Stx2e), to trigger apoptosis and the sequence of intracellular signaling events have not yet been completely defined. In this study we investigated the apoptotic effects of Stx2e on Vero cells. METHODS: Vero cells were treated with different concentrations of Stx2e for different time and the apoptotic cells were characterized by acridine orange and ethidium bromide fluorescent dye staining. The fragmentation of chromatin from Vero cells treated with Stx2e were detected by agarose gel electrophoresis. The expression patterns of apoptosis-associated factors were assayed by Western blotting. RESULTS: Stx2e-treated cells showed characteristic features of apoptosis, including membrane blebbing, DNA fragmentation, chromatin condensation, and the formation of apoptotic bodies, whereas ricin did not induce apoptosis of Vero cells even at a high dose. Fluorescent dye staining showed that Stx2e induced apoptosis of Vero cells in dose- and time-dependent manners. Caspase-3 was activated whereas expression levels of bcl2 associated X protein (Bax) and caspase-9 had no change compared with the negative control. CONCLUSION: Stx2e induced intensively apoptosis of Vero cells, which was mediated through the mitochondrion-independent pathway and might be throught a receptor-dependent pathway.

Shiga toxin 2eB-transgenic lettuce vaccine is effective in protecting weaned piglets from edema disease caused by Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli infection.

Porcine edema disease (ED) is a toxemia that is caused by enteric infection with Shiga toxin 2e (Stx2e)-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) and is associated with high mortality. Since ED occurs most frequently during the weaning period, preweaning vaccination of newborn piglets is required. We developed stx2eB-transgenic lettuce as an oral vaccine candidate against ED and examined its protective efficacy using a piglet STEC infection model. Two serially developed Stx2eB-lettuce strains, 2BN containing ingredient Stx2eB constituting a concentration level of 0.53 mg Stx2eB/g of powdered lettuce dry weight (DW) and 2BH containing ingredient Stx2eB constituting a concentration level of 2.3 mg of Stx2eB/g of powdered lettuce DW, were evaluated in three sequential experiments. Taken the results together, oral administration of Stx2eB-lettuce vaccine was suggested to relieve the pathogenic symptoms of ED in piglets challenged with virulent STEC strain. Our data suggested that Stx2eB-lettuce is a promising first oral vaccine candidate against ED.

The pathogenesis of edema disease in pigs. A review.

Edema disease is known to cause important losses in the period shortly after weaning. Although the disease is known for many decades, intensive studies with bacterial lysates of pathogenic E. coli, followed by biotechnological research the last ten years, has led to a better understanding of its pathogenesis. Especially the impact of the toxin is clearly established. Evidence also exists that adhesion factors play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of edema disease.

Pathogenesis of edema disease in swine: pathologic effects of hemolysin, autolysate, and endotoxin of Escherichia coli (O141).

Hemolysin, cell-free autolysate, and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) prepared from Escherichia coli (O141) were parenterally administered to 113 weaned pigs. Both the hemolysin and the cell-free autolysate were crude preparations which probably contained several biologically active substances. Pigs in all groups which die less than 72 hours after injection had similar gross and microscopic lesions. The pigs which survived (chronically affected pigs) were killed 3 to 12 days after injection. Of the pigs that lived more than 72 hours after injection, those given hemolysin and autolysate had generalized vascular myolysis and fibrinoid necrosis, whereas those given LPS had morphologically normal blood vessels. The vascular changes produced by hemolysin and autolysates of E coli (O141) were the same as the histologic angiopathy of naturally occurring edema disease of pigs. The LPS produced acute lesions of endotoxin shock in the pigs, but did not produce the angiopathy characteristic of edema disease. Typical clinical signs of naturally occurring edema disease were not a consistent observation in any of the treatment groups.

A review of porcine pathophysiology: a different approach to disease.

Diseases are often thought to result from a single cause. Although this is sometimes the case, e.g. with a highly virulent infection such as Classical Swine Fever (CSF), more often clinical disease in swine herds results from multiple predisposing factors. This is especially true in modern intensive pig husbandry, in which the role of highly infectious diseases is limited to (nonetheless devastating) outbreaks. More important nowadays are diseases, although associated with an agent, without a clear pathogenesis. The emphasis in disease control thus far has been on treatment, eradication and prevention. This has been achieved by focusing attention on husbandry factors, such as climate, housing, hygiene, management, and nutrition. Although this approach has been successful for a number of diseases, several health problems are persistent. There are strong indications that in the latter, intrinsic animal factors are important. Successful handling of these problems requires knowledge of the (patho)physiology of the pig. In this article, several characteristics of pig physiology associated with the occurrence of disease are described. It appears that the modern (fattening) pig is exceptional among other animal species in that its cardiovascular system is mismatched to its body weight. It is argued that this particular disposition causes relatively minor disturbances to have major consequences in the pig. This concept of pig physiology is central to the understanding of the hitherto poorly understood pathogenesis of several diseases, such as oedema disease.

The pathogenesis of the post-weaning syndrome in weaned piglets: a review.

This review deals with the pathogenesis of the post-weaning syndrome. This syndrome includes post-weaning diarrhoea (PWD), oedema disease (OD) and endotoxin shock (ES). The role of different enteropathogenic Escherichia coli bacteria and some other predisposing factors relating to this post-weaning syndrome (PWS) are discussed. Based on intestinal pathophysiological mechanisms, some suggestions for the prevention of PWS and prospects for future research are given.

An unusual presentation of suspected oedema disease of swine in Kenya.

From a group of 11 recently weaned pigs, 4 were reported to be sick. Clinical examination of the sick pigs revealed marked dyspnoea, bluish-red discolouration of the skin, incoordination and difficulty in walking. Bacteriological examination of the gut contents of 2 pigs that had died earlier yielded pure cultures of haemolytic Escherichia coli. Post mortem examination of the remaining 2 pigs that died subsequently revealed progressive pulmonary collapse. One of these also showed subcutaneous oedema of the head and marked oedema of the mesentery of the spiral colon and oedema of the brain. Microscopically there was pulmonary alveolar collapse and degenerative changes in the liver. On the basis of the clinical signs, isolation of haemolytic E. coli and the post mortem findings, a diagnosis of oedema disease was made.

Characterization of F107 fimbriae of Escherichia coli 107/86, which causes edema disease in pigs, and nucleotide sequence of the F107 major fimbrial subunit gene, fedA.

F107 fimbriae were isolated and purified from edema disease strain 107/86 of Escherichia coli. Plasmid pIH120 was constructed, which contains the gene cluster that codes for adhesive F107 fimbriae. The major fimbrial subunit gene, fedA, was sequenced. An open reading frame that codes for a protein with 170 amino acids, including a 21-amino-acid signal peptide, was found. The protein without the signal sequence has a calculated molecular mass of 15,099 Da. Construction of a nonsense mutation in the open reading frame of fedA abolished both fimbrial expression and the capacity to adhere to isolated porcine intestinal villi. In a screening of 28 reference edema disease strains and isolates from clinically ill piglets, fedA was detected in 24 cases (85.7%). In 20 (83.3%) of these 24 strains, fedA was found in association with Shiga-like toxin II variant genes, coding for the toxin that is characteristic for edema disease strains of E. coli. The fimbrial subunit gene was not detected in enterotoxigenic E. coli strains. Because of the capacity of E. coli HB101(pIH120) transformants to adhere to isolated porcine intestinal villi, the high prevalence of fedA in edema disease strains, and the high correlation with the Shiga-like toxin II variant toxin-encoding genes, we suggest that F107 fimbriae are an important virulence factor in edema disease strains of E. coli.

The role of adhesive F107 fimbriae and of SLT-IIv toxin in the pathogenesis of edema disease in pigs.

Colonization of the small intestine and the excretion of a toxin are important steps in the pathogenesis of edema disease in pigs. Although much is known about the chemical and biological characteristics of SLT-IIv toxin, its mode of action and its genetic determinant, F107 fimbriae were only recently described as colonization factors. Here we summarize our current knowledge about the virulence factors F107 fimbriae and SLT-IIv toxin.

Reproduction of edema disease of swine with purified Shiga-like toxin-II variant.

Twenty-one weaned Yorkshire-Landrace pigs were injected intravenously with graded doses of purified Shiga-like toxin-II variant (edema disease toxin). In a preliminary study, three pigs (Nos. 1, 2, 3) were injected with 48, 24, and 12 ng, respectively, of SLT-IIv/kg of body weight. Subsequently, three groups (Nos. 4, 5, 6) of six pigs each were injected with 6, 3, and 1.5 ng, respectively, of SLT-IIv/kg of body weight. Severe clinical signs and histologic lesions characteristic of edema disease developed in pigs Nos. 1, 2, and 3, and all six pigs in group No. 4. Eight of these pigs were euthanatized in extremis (mean time to death was 34 hours) and one died of the disease (52 hours). Moderate signs and lesions of edema disease were observed in all pigs in group No. 5, and three pigs were euthanatized (mean time to euthanasia was 42 hours). Mild signs and lesions were observed in three pigs in group No. 6. The most common gross pathologic changes were edema of the eyelids, submucosa of the stomach, and mesentery of the spiral colon and hemorrhage of the colon and cerebellum. Microscopic lesions were associated with vascular injury and included vessel necrosis, perivascular edema and hemorrhage, and superficial colonic and cecal erosions. The vascular lesions were observed in the cerebellar folia, submucosa and mucosa of the stomach, cecum, colon, and sporadically in the retina. None of the clinical signs associated with endotoxin were observed.

Interaction of verotoxin 2e with pig intestine.

In pigs with edema disease, verotoxin 2e (VT2e) is produced in the intestine and transported to tissues, but neither the mechanism by which toxin passes through the intestine nor its failure to induce an enterotoxic reaction is understood. Binding of VT2e to pig intestine was examined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay involving microvillus membranes (MVM) and crude mucus; thin-layer chromatographic overlay immunoassay with total lipids extracted from MVM; and indirect immunofluorescence of toxin bound to thin sections of jejunum, ileum, and colon. VT2e bound significantly to MVM from pig jejunum and ileum but not to crude mucus. Verotoxin 2e-binding glycolipids, globotetraosylceramide and globotriaosylceramide, were detected by thin-layer chromatographic overlay immunoassay in extracts of MVM from jejunum and ileum. Indirect immunofluorescence showed that VT2e bound to vessels within the submucosa and muscularis mucosa of the jejunum, ileum, and colon and to enterocytes at the lower portion but not at the tips of villi in the jejunum and ileum. Receptors for VT2e are therefore present in the intestine of the pig, but their role in absorption of VT2e is unclear since intraintestinal inoculation of pigs with large quantities of VT2e does not result in edema disease. Previously reported lack of enterotoxicity of verotoxins in pig intestine may be explained by the absence of toxin receptors in the villus absorptive enterocytes.

Experimental edema disease of swine (E. coli enterotoxemia). 3. Pathology and pathogenesis.

Experimental colibacillary (Escherichia coli) enterotoxemia as described in this report mimics natural edema disease both clinically and in gross pathology. The histopathology is characterized by accumulations of non-inflammatory edema and by arteriopathy. The smaller arterial and arteriolar changes recorded here are similar to those described in natural edema disease. The vascular changes described in recovered cases of experimental colibacillary enterotoxemia concur with those reported in so-called subacute and chronic edema disease. The arteriolar changes that occur in colibacillary enterotoxemia of swine are comparable to those associated with hypertension. Thin sections of cerebral cortex from four pigs with acute experimental edema disease were examined by electron microscopy in an attempt to demonstrate brain edema. Sections from one pig taken during the convulsive phase of disease revealed dilatation of perivascular glial processes. However, examination of sections taken from three other pigs during an earlier phase of the neurological disturbance revealed no significant lesions. We were unable to ascertain the role of brain edema in the pathogenesis of the nervous system disturbance in these experiments.