Extraction and application of lipids from edible insects.

Research on new food sources is a worldwide challenge due to the constant increase in the global population. In this scenario, insects and bug based products have been investigated as feasible food alternatives. They are nutritionally healthy and environmentally sustainable. Eating insects (entomophagy) or utilizing their macronutrients in food formulations can efficiently solve the demand for nutritious food. The benefits of insect-based foods are reported in the literature, mainly because they are viable sources of fat (∼38%) and proteins (∼68%). Fats and oils are recognized as essential nutrients in human nutrition, as they provide a concentrated source of energy and act as structural components of cell membranes and signaling pathways. The high levels of fats/oils of edible insects open the perspective in the food industry to be used as ingredients in the enrichment of several products, such as cookies, biscuits, butter, and margarine, among others, thus contributing to consumer acceptance. Insect fat/oil can be obtained using extraction techniques, such as solvent and supercritical CO2 methods. The method depends on the insect species, fat/oil yield, and process costs. Thus, this review aims to provide current information on the consumption, application, and extraction of edible insect oils.

Consumers' perception of novel foods and the impact of heuristics and biases: A systematic review.

According to the definition adopted in the European Union, novel foods are foods that were not consumed to a significant degree within the Union before May 15, 1997. This includes cultivated meat and insects. Novel foods are meant to play a critical role in the transition towards sustainable food systems. However, their success depends on whether and to what extent they will be incorporated into the diets at the population level. This review investigates consumers' perception of novel food products by narratively synthesising results on the influence of heuristics and biases triggered by emotions, personality traits, and socio-cultural factors. Empirical studies conducted in Western countries and published in English after 1997 were eligible, which led to 182 studies being included. Notably, most included studies focused on insects and cultivated meat. Disgust and fear are shown to be the main emotions driving rejection of novel foods, together with food neophobia and specific cultural norms common across countries included in the scope of the review. Familiarity with novel foods and curiosity both led to higher acceptance. Despite being investigated directly in a minority of studies, heuristics and related biases mostly fell under the "affect," the "natural-is-better," and the "trust" heuristics. The review also discusses to what extent consumers' perception reflects in the regulatory framework applicable to novel foods in the European Union, how it influences the regulation of insects and cultivated meat and which lessons can be drawn for the future of the regulatory framework.

Consumers of insect-based foods: a cross-cultural study between Belgium and Gabon.

Human consumption of insects has previously been examined in cross-cultural studies. However, such studies rarely include African countries and willingness-to-pay for insect-based food has never been assessed in cross-cultural studies. The current study presents a cross-cultural study conducted with 409 urban dwellers from Belgium (191 males; 218 females) and 412 urban dwellers from Gabon (219 males; 193 females). Each respondent was surveyed with a questionnaire following the Knowledge, Attitude, and Practices model and included questions relative to willingness-to-pay for 2 insect-based foods (insect baguette and insect burger). More than 90% of respondents from both countries were familiar with edible insects. However, acceptance of entomophagy was lower in respondents from Gabon than in respondents from Belgium. Intercultural differences were also recorded between Gabonese ethnic groups. Most respondents who accepted entomophagy were willing to eat the insect baguette and/or the insect burger. These findings confirm that entomophagy could further develop in Belgium and Gabon. Willingness-to-pay varied between countries and between insect-based foods. In Belgium, the average prices of comparable conventional foods (i.e., same foods but without insects) were lower than the average willingness-to-pay for insect-based foods. In Gabon, respondents were not willing to pay extra for insect-based foods. Setting the right price for insect-based foods is a necessary step to promote more frequent insect consumption.

Consumption of edible insects and insect-based foods: A systematic review of sensory properties and evoked emotional response.

Low consumer acceptance of edible insects and insect-based products is one of the main barriers to the successful implementation of entomophagy in Western countries. This rejection is mainly caused by consumers' negative emotional responses, psychological/personality traits, and attitudes toward food choices. However, as the role of intrinsic product characteristics on such food choices has not been adequately studied, a systematic review was conducted following the PRISMA method, to analyze studies that have assessed hedonic evaluations, sensory profiling, or emotional responses to edible insects or insect-based products. The majority of studies performed with whole insects and insect flour highlight that insect-based products are more negatively evaluated than control products. Although the sensory properties of insects are affected by species and processing conditions, they are generally negative across sensory dimensions. In particular, insects and insect-based products are generally associated with odor and flavor/taste attributes that are related to old/spoiled food. These negative attributes can be linked to the fat fraction of edible insects, with insect oils being very negatively evaluated by consumers. On the other hand, defatted fractions and deodorized oils are not associated with these negative attributes, further supporting the hypothesis that the fat fraction is responsible for the negative odor and flavor/taste attributes. However, there is still a lack of studies assessing the sensory profile of edible insects and insect-based products, as well as consumers' emotional responses to their consumption. Future studies should focus on the effects of different processing conditions, products incorporating insect fractions (namely protein concentrates/isolates and defatted fractions), and evaluation by target consumer groups.

Encouraging willingness to try insect foods with a utility-value intervention.

Despite the benefits of eating insects (entomophagy), Western society is often inclined to reject this practice based on initial reactions of disgust. It is suggested there is potential to overcome this attitude through increasing interest and gaining knowledge of the benefits. One way to accomplish this is through an adapted utility-value intervention, traditionally applied in education research, to increase interest and perceived value in a topic. Across two studies (each with a one-month follow-up) participants researched and wrote an essay designed to increase interest and value in entomophagy or a control essay. Participants then completed a rating task assessing their willingness to try insect and familiar foods, along with other key attributes (e.g., sustainability). The utility-value intervention increased willingness to try insect foods as well as other key attributes compared to a non-insect control essay (Study 1). Unexpectedly, we also found a potentially similar (but smaller) effect of researching an insect-based recipe (Study 2) on willingness to try. The effects found in both studies were consistent at follow-up. These findings indicate the usefulness of utility-value interventions in encouraging entomophagy but also suggest that exposure to information about insect food, although less effective than a utility-value intervention, may also be sufficient.

Insects as food - Changes in consumers' acceptance of entomophagy in Hungary between 2016 and 2021.

Public interest in entomophagy (consumption of insects) has developed significantly over the past several years. Possible nutritional benefits are perceived by consumers according to several recent studies, as well as sustainability and food security. However, most European communities, including the Hungarian, do not embrace entomophagy, despite the widespread practice elsewhere globally. This study aims to evaluate the changes in the perception of entomophagy among the Hungarian population between 2016 and 2021, together with the factors differentiating between acceptive and dismissive consumers. The results of the two representative quantitative surveys indicate that more than 70% of Hungarian consumers are not willing to try entomophagy, which had not changed significantly in the observed period, despite the high media coverage of this topic in recent years. Some groups open to insect consumption can still be identified. According to the socioeconomic segmentation of the data collected in 2021, consumers who accept insect-based foods can be found in high numbers among men between 18 and 39 years old (49.3%). Positive attitudes are less likely to be observed among females; however, 27.6% of highly educated women between 18 and 59 years demonstrated a certain level of interest. Those consumers willing to consume insects are driven mainly by curiosity, and also value high protein content and sustainability, and perceive insect-based food as nutritious. Consumers who prefer local and national food tend to refuse to eat insects in a higher ratio.

Japanese attitude toward insects as food: The role of tradition.

This study investigated the influence of traditional insect food culture on the acceptance of novel insect foods by comparing a sample from the Kanto area (N = 485) as representative of the Japanese population, and a sample from Nagano Prefecture (N = 198), where entomophagy remains relatively commonly practiced. More than half of the Japanese participants had insect-eating experience (52.0% in the Kanto area, 81.8% in Nagano); however, among them, less than half were currently willing to eat insect foods. Furthermore, when questioned about the dietary substitution of meat and fish with insects, only 7.0% in the Kanto area and 15.7% in Nagano answered positively. Although the regions with a strong insect culture had a higher percentage of people who accepted traditional insect foods, the percentage of people who accepted novel insect foods was not significantly different between the two regions. Results of the regression analysis suggested that food neophobia and food technology neophobia have relatively positive impacts on willingness to eat novel insect foods in Nagano. However, concerns about the taste of insects owing to the experience of eating traditional insect foods counteracted this effect, indicating both positive and negative effects of tradition. Regression analysis of willingness-to-eat and willingness-to-substitute for edible insects suggested that the key to getting people to incorporate insects into their diets is not only to create awareness of the relationship between using insect foods and environmental conservation, but also to dispel concerns about the hygiene of insect foods and develop insect foods with a taste as good as that of meat and fish.

Booming the bugs: How can marketing help increase consumer acceptance of insect-based food in Western countries?

Edible insects could be a promising answer to the question of how to feed a growing human population with a healthier and more sustainable source of protein. Despite the increasing interest in entomophagy in food science and industry, however, consumer acceptance for insect-based food products remains low in Western countries. This systematic review provides a comprehensive and timely overview of studies relevant for researchers, practitioners and other stakeholders involved in the marketing of these products. Reviewing data from 45 selected studies, we focus on marketing measures tested for their influence on Western consumers' preference, acceptance, willingness to try, eat and/or buy insect-based food products. Organising the findings according to the 4Ps of the marketing mix framework, five main ways of enhancing the appeal and acceptance of insect-based food products are discussed: 1) developing product attributes that align with the specific preferences of target consumers; 2) a more subtle labelling of the presence of insects; 3) using value-added or competition-based pricing strategies; 4) making products consistently available in the marketplace; and 5) promoting products more effectively through advertising, tasting activities, and social influence. The heterogeneity we find among the studies, whether due to differences in the products researched, in sampling countries, or in data-collection methods, indicates key research gaps for future studies to address.

Bioactive Peptide Discovery from Edible Insects for Potential Applications in Human Health and Agriculture.

In the past decade, there has been fast-growing interest among researchers to discover bioactive peptides from edible insects and to evaluate their potential applications in the management of human, livestock, and plant health. This review summarizes current knowledge of insect-derived peptides and their potential role in tackling human health issues and solving agriculture problems by protecting crops and livestock against their pathogens. Numerous bioactive peptides have been identified from edible insect species, including peptides that were enzymatically liberated from insect proteins and endogenous peptides that occur naturally in insects. The peptides exhibited diverse bioactivities, encompassing antioxidant, anti-angiotensin-converting enzyme, anti-dipeptidyl peptidase-IV, anti-glucosidase, anti-lipase, anti-lipoxygenase, anti-cyclooxygenase, anti-obesity, and hepatoprotective activities. Such findings point to their potential contribution to solving human health problems related to inflammation, free radical damage, diabetes, hypertension, and liver damage, among others. Although most of the experiments were performed in vitro, evidence for the in vivo efficacy of some peptides is emerging. Evidence of the protective effects of insect-derived endogenous antimicrobial peptides in combating farm animal and plant pathogens is available. The ability of insect-derived endogenous neuropeptides to protect plants against herbivorous insects has been demonstrated as well. Nevertheless, the potency of peptides identified from insect protein hydrolysates in modulating livestock and plant health remains a knowledge gap to be filled.

Nutritional Qualities and Enhancement of Edible Insects.

Over the last decade, the urgency to find alternative and sustainable protein sources has prompted an exponential increase in the interest in insects as a human food source. Edible insects contribute suitable amounts of energy and protein, fatty acids, and micronutrients to the human diet. Nutritional values of insects can be manipulated to meet specific needs. Edible insects in food-insecure countries can contribute to improving diets and preventing undernutrition. Bioactive compounds in insects may reduce health risks. Food safety risks are low and mainly relate to those of allergenicity. Strategies to overcome barriers to the consumption of insect products include emphasizing their sustainability, increasing their tastiness, and developing the ability to disguise insects in familiar products. A new sector of insects as food and feed is emerging. Major challenges include legislation, lowering prices by automation and cheap substrates, developing insect products that appeal to consumers, and exploring the health benefits.

Drivers of insect consumption across human populations.

Discussions regarding entomophagy in humans have been typically led by entomologists. While anthropologists devote much time to understanding diverse human subsistence practices, historical and cultural variation in insect consumption remains largely unexplained. This review explores the relation between variable ecologies, subsistence strategies, and social norms on insect consumption patterns across past and contemporary human populations. Ecological factors, such as the nutritional contribution of edible insects relative to those of other foraged or farmed resources available, may help explain variation in their consumption. Additionally, our evolved social learning strategies may help propagate social norms that prohibit or prioritize the consumption of some or all edible insects, independent of their profitability. By adopting a behavioral ecological and cultural evolutionary approach, this review aims to resolve current debates on insect consumption and provide directions for future research.

Australians' experience, barriers and willingness towards consuming edible insects as an emerging protein source.

Increasing global populations and limitations on the natural resources required in food production such as land and water will place further pressure on an already strained food production system. To meet the future food production requirements, it is essential to find viable alternatives to current food sources, without the high resource challenges. Protein production is of particular concern and insects are a nutritious and sustainable source yet, despite a rich history in parts of the world, Australians have been reluctant to adopt the practice as a societal norm. This study aimed to explore Australian consumers' experiences with edible insects, identify barriers to consumption, and explore possible factors that may motivate Australians to consume insects. A total of 601 participants (23.8% male, 76.2% female), completed an online survey using a variety of open-ended questions; 5- or 7-point Likert scales and check-all-that-apply questions. Consumer willingness was measured through self-reporting willingness-to-try insects or insect-based foods. Results indicated 35.4% of participants had previously consumed insects, with Orthoptera (crickets, grasshoppers) the most commonly consumed order (60.1%). Participants with no previous experience consuming insects cited 'lack of opportunity' as the main reason (57.2%). 'Increased accessibility' (56.6%) and 'increased nutrition knowledge' (56.6%) were identified as major factors that may increase the likelihood of future insect consumption. Participants reporting that they were willing to try insects were most likely to accept 'insect-based flour' (65.6%) and 'chocolate-covered ants' (52.1%). By providing increased opportunity, accessibility and education of insect-based food products, a higher proportion of Australians may be willing to eat insects, particularly if presented in indistinguishable forms (i.e. flour). This may lead to a greater acceptance of insects as an alternative, more sustainable protein source than previously anticipated.

Curious to eat insects? Curiosity as a Key Predictor of Willingness to try novel food.

Entomophagy - the consumption of insects - is often rejected by Western society despite its benefits over traditional animal-based proteins. While several factors have been identified as potential predictors of people's willingness to try insect foods, this study introduced an under-explored factor: curiosity, which is a powerful motivator of behaviour that can overcome negative emotions and motivate us to seek new experiences. In two experiments (Ns = 240 and 248), participants (all UK residents, 99.6% British citizens) rated a number of food dishes, half of which contained insects, on a number of factors including curiosity and willingness to try the dish. Across both studies, curiosity predicted willingness to try both insect and non-insect foods above and beyond other factors. Furthermore, we unexpectedly (but consistently) observed a "curiosity-boosting effect" in which curiosity positively interacted with other predictors, increasing their effect on willingness to try insect foods, but not familiar foods. These findings suggest that curiosity promotes the willingness to try insect food in two different manners: A direct effect (above and beyond other factors) and a boosting effect.

"Food made with edible insects": Exploring the social representation of entomophagy where it is unfamiliar.

Insects have attracted much attention as a novel food source because of their environmental and nutritional advantages. In Latin America, some traditional groups consume insects; but the urban areas of Brazil resist adopting insects as food, like most Western countries. Thus, this study investigated the social representation of edible insects to understand the barrier behind this avoidance and to identify their segmentation in the Brazilian population. Seven hundred and eighty individuals were interviewed in all the Brazilian regions. The interview was composed of a word association task, a risk perception evaluation and two open-ended questions about the subject. According to the structural approach of social representation, Disgust was the primary association with edible insects. Three segments of consumers were identified using the risk perception of eating insects. The first segment, composed mainly of young men with higher educational levels, had the lowest risk perception, and the most positive attitude about entomophagy, their associations were also positive, such as Acceptance and Sustainability; the second had average risk perception and neutral attitude towards edible insects, with neutral and positive associations (e.g., Flavor and Culture); and the third, formed mostly by older women with lower educational level, presented the highest risk perception and the most negative attitude, and exhibited negative associations (Disgust, and Fear). The insect consumption in Brazil would be favored by using species of crickets, grasshoppers, ants, and their fried and roasted styles of preparations. Also, participants would eat insects mainly because of survival and curiosity.

Evaluating the Functional Characteristics of Certain Insect Flours (Non-Defatted/Defatted Flour) and Their Protein Preparations.

Edible insects as an alternative source of protein are gaining increasing attention, leading to new opportunities for their use in food processing. In this study, the functional properties, such as water and oil holding capacity, foaming, and emulsifying properties, of the most popular insect forms (flour, defatted flour, and protein preparations), such as Gryllus asimillis, Acheta domesticus, and Zophobas morio, were studied. Moreover, proximate analysis, protein extraction yield and efficiency, and sensory analysis, were evaluated. Defatting the flours yielded the highest protein content of all the insect forms tested, in the range of 70.51 to 76.02%, significantly reducing their calorific value by up to 35% for Z. morio. Generally, protein preparations exhibit the best functional properties among studied forms, and the most significant differences are noticeable in foaming capacity-near 30% higher than flours. Furthermore, all samples scored well in the sensory test (overall score 3.76-4.47) except for the Z. morio flour (2.93), which may exclude it from being used in the food industry. The results show that the insect forms studied, due to their good functional properties, can become a valuable component of food recipes, positively impacting the characteristics of the designed food.

Adding Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) Powder to Wheat Bread: Effects on Physicochemical, Sensory and Microbiological Qualities of the End-Product.

Entomophagy, that is, the consumption of insects, is gaining more and more popularity. The research carried out so far on the use of edible insects in the food industry has shown that they are a valuable source of protein, and do not significantly affect the functional and sensory properties of food. Edible insects also contribute to sustainable, environment friendly food production. Taking the above into account, the influence of adding insect powder on the physicochemical properties, sensory characteristics, and microbiological qualities of wheat bread was evaluated. This study aimed to partially replace wheat flour (5, 10, and 15%) in bread with mealworm powder (T. molitor) to produce protein-fortified bread. Bread containing mealworm powder showed similar density and water activity compared to the control wheat bread. The addition of mealworm powder did not negatively affect the properties of bread. The total color difference increased significantly (p < 0.05) with the insect flour share in bread formulation and ranged between 2.27 for M5, 4.00 for M10, and 4.50 for M15. The protein content in bread fortified with 5−15% mealworm powder increased by 15−59% compared to the control bread, whereas fat content increased by 35% to 113%. Results of sensory evaluation revealed that modification of the recipe, depending on the mealworm powder addition level, significantly (p < 0.05) affected bread color, odor, flavor, and overall sensory quality. The research showed that the optimal enrichment level is using 5% mealworm flour in the bread recipe. Moreover, the obtained variants of bread were characterized by good microbiological quality after baking. In bread M10, no yeasts and molds were found during a period of 2 days of storage. The number of yeasts and molds in the other bread variants was relatively low. To conclude, the results confirmed the usefulness of insect powder in making protein-fortified bread of good quality comparable to traditional wheat bread.

Determination of selected elements in two commercially available edible aquatic insects (Coleoptera) and their worldwide updated list.

Many nations and ethnic groups from underdeveloped and developed countries have used insects as human food since ancient times, a practice that has continued into modern times. In many traditionally entomophagous countries, insects are not a "famine food," and demand for edible insects is clearly a "food of choice" rather than a necessity. From a nutritional point of view, depending on the insect species, gender, insect's diet, and seasons, some species of edible insects have significant amounts of fat, protein, carbohydrates, and vitamins, as well as minerals required for human health, thus representing an alternative food source. In addition to their nutritious content, they may also accumulate pesticide residues, microplastics, and heavy metals from their ecosystems. Therefore, this study analyses some mineral (Ca, Fe, Cu, Zn, Se, Co, Cr, As, and Pb) contents of two selected commercialized aquatic edible beetles, Dytiscus marginalis and Cybister tripunctatus (Dytiscidae), via inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and reviews the contemporary list of aquatic edible beetles of the world, summarizing the nutritional characteristics of water beetles with a synthesis of the risks and benefits of edible aquatic beetles in recent literature. The mineral composition of the aquatic beetles is briefly discussed. Antinutritional elements (Pb and As) were detected in aquatic insects, but their contents are below toxic levels for humans. A list of 92 edible aquatic beetle species from Dytiscidae, Gyrinidae, Elmidae, Histeridae, Hydrophilidae, Haliplidae, and Noteridae (Coleoptera) was compiled and updated.

The multidimensional nature of food neophobia.

People vary in their willingness to try new foods. This variation, which is most frequently measured using the Food Neophobia Scale (FNS; Pliner & Hobden, 1992), has been interpreted as unidimensional. In four studies (N's = 210, 306, 160, and 161), we 1) demonstrate that food neophobia varies across meat and plant dimensions, 2) explore the validity of a measure of meat and plant neophobia, and 3) test whether these food neophobia dimensions predict decisions to eat a novel food item (i.e., a snack bar that contains insects). Mixed-effects model across the four studies indicated that the two dimensions differentially relate to a number of variables, including disgust sensitivity, animal empathy, and masculinity. Women scored higher on meat neophobia than men, but the sexes did not differ on plant neophobia. Only meat neophobia uniquely predicted eating a novel insect-based snack bar. Overall, these results extend knowledge regarding orientations toward novel foods.

Desire to eat and intake of 'insect' containing food is increased by a written passage: The potential role of familiarity in the amelioration of novel food disgust.

Over two studies we investigated the effect of various written interventions (passages) on the disgust response towards a food (falafels) which supposedly contained mealworm (insect) flour. Actually, participants (Study 1 N = 80, Study 2 N = 78) were given the same non-mealworm containing food in all conditions. Disgust was measured using: tactile sensitivity, food intake, liking and desire to eat. Results of Study 1 showed that a sustainability passage (sustainability advantages of entomophagy), but not a delicacy passage (oro-sensory qualities of insects), was effective in reducing disgust. In Study 2, contrary to prediction, a passage describing the sustainability and nutritional advantages entomophagy failed to reduce disgust - falafel intake, liking and desire to eat were decreased. However, a passage which described how mealworm flour is produced, did significantly reduce disgust. Taken together, these studies demonstrate that written passages can alter the disgust response, notably resulting in a maintenance of food intake. Interventions that increase the perception of familiarity of a novel food, but not logic-based arguments, may be a key driver of the amelioration of disgust. These results also support the suggestion that altering the ideational component of disgust can result in changes of distaste perception.

Commerce of Edible Insects in the State of Morelos, Mexico.

The present study deals with the taxonomical analysis of the edible insects commercialized in the state of Morelos, Mexico. We have recorded two species under the order Orthoptera and four species under Hemiptera-Heteroptera. Our work revealed that grasshoppers and small hemipterans known as 'jumiles' are the two main insects sold in the markets of the state of Morelos. We also discuss insects' prices and their economic importance for the livelihood improvement of the local people connected to the edible insect trade.