Effects of PRRT2 mutation on brain gray matter networks in paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia.

Although proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 is the primary causative gene of paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia, its effects on the brain structure of paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia patients are not yet clear. Here, we explored the influence of proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 mutations on similarity-based gray matter morphological networks in individuals with paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia. A total of 51 paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia patients possessing proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 mutations, 55 paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia patients possessing proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 non-mutation, and 80 healthy controls participated in the study. We analyzed the structural connectome characteristics across groups by graph theory approaches. Relative to paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia patients possessing proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 non-mutation and healthy controls, paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia patients possessing proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 mutations exhibited a notable increase in characteristic path length and a reduction in both global and local efficiency. Relative to healthy controls, both patient groups showed reduced nodal metrics in right postcentral gyrus, right angular, and bilateral thalamus; Relative to healthy controls and paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia patients possessing proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 non-mutation, paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia patients possessing proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 mutations showed almost all reduced nodal centralities and structural connections in cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical circuit including bilateral supplementary motor area, bilateral pallidum, and right caudate nucleus. Finally, we used support vector machine by gray matter network matrices to classify paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia patients possessing proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 mutations and paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia patients possessing proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 non-mutation, achieving an accuracy of 73%. These results show that proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 related gray matter network deficits may contribute to paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia, offering new insights into its pathophysiological mechanisms.

The intramembrane COOH-terminal domain of PRRT2 regulates voltage-dependent Na+ channels.

Proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 (PRRT2) is the single causative gene for pleiotropic paroxysmal syndromes, including epilepsy, kinesigenic dyskinesia, episodic ataxia, and migraine. PRRT2 is a neuron-specific type-2 membrane protein with a COOH-terminal intramembrane domain and a long proline-rich NH2-terminal cytoplasmic region. A large array of experimental data indicates that PRRT2 is a neuron stability gene that negatively controls intrinsic excitability by regulating surface membrane localization and biophysical properties of voltage-dependent Na+ channels Nav1.2 and Nav1.6, but not Nav1.1. To further investigate the regulatory role of PRRT2, we studied the structural features of this membrane protein with molecular dynamics simulations, and its structure-function relationships with Nav1.2 channels by biochemical and electrophysiological techniques. We found that the intramembrane COOH-terminal region maintains a stable conformation over time, with the first transmembrane domain forming a helix-loop-helix motif within the bilayer. The unstructured NH2-terminal cytoplasmic region bound to the Nav1.2 better than the isolated COOH-terminal intramembrane domain, mimicking full-length PRRT2, while the COOH-terminal intramembrane domain was able to modulate Na+ current and channel biophysical properties, still maintaining the striking specificity for Nav1.2 versus Nav1.1. channels. The results identify PRRT2 as a dual-domain protein in which the NH2-terminal cytoplasmic region acts as a binding antenna for Na+ channels, while the COOH-terminal membrane domain regulates channel exposure on the membrane and its biophysical properties.

CD225 Proteins: A Family Portrait of Fusion Regulators.

The CD225 superfamily regulates vesicular membrane fusion events essential to neurotransmission, immunity, development, and metabolism. Its importance to physiology is reinforced by the identification of polymorphisms associated with disease. This article highlights the shared features that drive the function of CD225 proteins such as interferon-inducible transmembrane proteins 3 (IFITM3) and proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 (PRRT2) and is intended to catalyze efforts towards characterizing the lesser-known family members.

Functional characterization of a novel PRRT2 variant found in a Portuguese patient with hemiplegic migraine.

Familial hemiplegic migraine (FHM) is a rare autosomal-dominant form of migraine with aura. Three disease-causing genes have been identified for FHM: CACNA1A, ATP1A2 and SCN1A. However, not all families are linked to one of these three genes.PRRT2 variants were also commonly associated with HM symptoms; therefore, PRRT2 is hypothesized as the fourth gene causing FHM. PRRT2 plays an important role in neuronal migration, spinogenesis, and synapse mechanisms during development and calcium-dependent neurotransmitter release. We performed exome sequencing to unravel the genetic cause of migraine in one family, and a novel PRRT2 variant (c.938C > T;p.Ala313Val) was identified with further functional studies to confirm its pathogenicity. PRRT2-A313V reduced protein stability, led to protein premature degradation by the proteasome and altered the subcellular localization of PRRT2 from the plasma membrane (PM) to the cytoplasm. We identified and characterized for the first time in a Portuguese patient, a novel heterozygous missense variant in PRRT2 associated with HM symptoms. We suggest that PRRT2 should be included in the diagnosis of HM.

Levetiracetam may be an unsuitable choice for patients with PRRT2-associated self-limited infantile epilepsy.

INTRODUCTION: Self-limited infantile epilepsy (SeLIE) is a benign epilepsy. Previous studies have shown that monotherapy with most antiseizure medications can effectively relieve seizures in patients with SeLIE, but the efficacy of levetiracetam has not been investigated. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of levetiracetam in the treatment of SeLIE patients with PRRT2 mutations. METHODS: The clinical data of 39 SeLIE patients (21 males and 18 females, aged 4.79 ± 1.60 months) with pathogenic variants in PRRT2 or 16p11.2 microdeletion were retrospectively analyzed. Based on the use of initial antiseizure medication (ASM), the patients were classified into two groups: Levetiracetam group (LEG) and Other ASMs group (OAG). The difference of efficacy between the two groups was compared. RESULTS: Among the 39 SeLIE patients, 16 were LEG (10 males and 6 females, aged 5.25 ± 2.07 months), with whom two obtained a seizure-free status (12.50%) and 14 ineffective or even deteriorated (87.50%). Among the 14 ineffective or deteriorated cases, 13 were seizure-controlled after replacing levetiracetam with other ASMs including topiramate, oxcarbazepine, lamotrigine, and valproate, and the remaining one finally achieved remission at age 3. Of the 39 patients, 23 were OAG (11 males and 12 females; aged 4.48 ± 1.12 months), of whom 22 achieved seizure remission, except for one patient who was ineffective with topiramate initially and relieved by oxcarbazepine instead. Although there were no significant differences in gender and age of onset between the two groups, the effective rate was significantly different (12.50% in LEG vs. 95.65% in OAG) (P < 0.01). CONCLUSION: The findings showed that patients with SeLIE caused by the PRRT2 mutations did not benefit from the use of levetiracetam, but could benefit from other ASMs.

Features Differ Between Paroxysmal Kinesigenic Dyskinesia Patients with PRRT2 and TMEM151A Variants.

BACKGROUND: Mutations in proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 (PRRT2) are the major cause of paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia (PKD). We recently reported transmembrane protein 151A (TMEM151A) mutations caused PKD. Herein, we aimed to conduct phenotypic comparisons of patients with PKD carrying PRRT2 variants, carrying TMEM151A variants, and carrying neither the PRRT2 nor TMEM151A variant. METHODS: Sanger sequencing of PRRT2 and TMEM151A was performed, and phenotypic characteristics were analyzed. RESULTS: In a cohort of 131 PKD probands (108 without PRRT2 variants and 23 newly recruited), five novel TMEM151A variants were identified and one (c.647C > A) occurred de novo. Together with our previous studies, PRRT2 and TMEM151A variants accounted for 34.7% (85/245) and 6.9% (17/245) of PKD probands, respectively. Compared with patients carrying PRRT2 variants, those with TMEM151A variants tended to exbibit dystonia with shorter durations, have no history of benign infantile epilepsy, and have residual attacks/aura when treated with carbamazepine/oxcarbazepine. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with TMEM151A variants have different features from patients with PRRT2 variants. © 2022 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

TMEM151A Variants Cause Paroxysmal Kinesigenic Dyskinesia: A Large-Sample Study.

BACKGROUND: Paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia (PKD) is the most common type of paroxysmal dyskinesias. Only one-third of PKD patients are attributed to proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 (PRRT2) mutations. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to explore the potential causative gene for PKD. METHODS: A cohort of 196 PRRT2-negative PKD probands were enrolled for whole-exome sequencing (WES). Gene Ranking, Identification and Prediction Tool, a method of case-control analysis, was applied to identify the candidate genes. Another 325 PRRT2-negative PKD probands were subsequently screened with Sanger sequencing. RESULTS: Transmembrane Protein 151 (TMEM151A) variants were mainly clustered in PKD patients compared with the control groups. 24 heterozygous variants were detected in 25 of 521 probands (frequency = 4.80%), including 18 missense and 6 nonsense mutations. In 29 patients with TMEM151A variants, the ratio of male to female was 2.63:1 and the mean age of onset was 12.93 ± 3.15 years. Compared with PRRT2 mutation carriers, TMEM151A-related PKD were more common in sporadic PKD patients with pure phenotype. There was no significant difference in types of attack and treatment outcome between TMEM151A-positive and PRRT2-positive groups. CONCLUSIONS: We consolidated mutations in TMEM151A causing PKD with the aid of case-control analysis of a large-scale WES data, which broadens the genotypic spectrum of PKD. TMEM151A-related PKD were more common in sporadic cases and tended to present as pure phenotype with a late onset. Extensive functional studies are needed to enhance our understanding of the pathogenesis of TMEM151A-related PKD. © 2021 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

TMEM151A phenotypic spectrum includes paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia with infantile convulsions.

In a three-generation family, five individuals exhibited the typical phenotype of paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia (PKD). Intriguingly, one of the individuals also showed benign familial infantile convulsions (BFIC) at age 4 months and spontaneously resolved at age 18 months. At age 12, she developed a typical PKD, and was gradually relieved at age 21. Therefore, the clinical phenotype was consistent with PKD with infantile convulsions (PKD/IC). Whole exome sequence and co-segregation analysis revealed a novel heterozygous variant c.1085A > G in the TMEM151A gene. Our study suggests that the TMEM151A gene may be associated with the disease spectrum of PKD-PKD/IC-BFIC.

Proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 specifically binds to GluA1 but has no effect on AMPA receptor-mediated synaptic transmission.

BACKGROUND: Proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 (PRRT2) is a neuron-specific protein associated with seizures, dyskinesia, and intelligence deficit. Previous studies indicate that PRRT2 regulates neurotransmitter release from presynaptic membranes. However, PRRT2 can also bind AMPA-type glutamate receptors (AMPARs), but its postsynaptic functions remain unclear. METHODS AND RESULTS: Whole-exome sequencing used to diagnose a patient with mental retardation identified a nonsense mutation in the PRRT2 gene (c.649C>T; p.R217X). To understand the pathology of the mutant, we cloned mouse Prrt2 cDNA and inserted a premature stop mutation at Arg223, the corresponding site of Arg217 in human PRRT2. In mouse hippocampal tissues, Prrt2 interacted with GluA1/A2 AMPAR heteromers but not GluA2/A3s, via binding to GluA1. Additionally, Prrt2 suppressed GluA1 expression and localization on cell membranes of HEK 293T cells. However, when Prrt2 was overexpressed in individual hippocampal neurons using in utero electroporation, AMPAR-mediated synaptic transmission was unaffected. Deletion of Prrt2 with the CRIPR/Cas9 technique did not affect AMPAR-mediated synaptic transmission. Furthermore, deletion or overexpression of Prrt2 did not affect GluA1 expression and distribution in primary neuronal culture. CONCLUSIONS: The postsynaptic functions of Prrt2 demonstrate that Prrt2 specifically interacts with the AMPAR subunit GluA1 but does not regulate AMPAR-mediated synaptic transmission. Therefore, our study experimentally excluded a postsynaptic regulatory mechanism of Prrt2. The pathology of PRRT2 variants in humans likely originates from defects in neurotransmitter release from the presynaptic membrane as suggested by recent studies.

Increased responsiveness at the cerebellar input stage in the PRRT2 knockout model of paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia.

PRoline-Rich Transmembrane protein-2 (PRRT2) is a recently described neuron-specific type-2 integral membrane protein with a large cytosolic N-terminal domain that distributes in presynaptic and axonal domains where it interacts with several presynaptic proteins and voltage-gated Na+ channels. Several PRRT2 mutations are the main cause of a wide and heterogeneous spectrum of paroxysmal disorders with a loss-of-function pathomechanism. The highest expression levels of PRRT2 in brain occurs in cerebellar granule cells (GCs) and cerebellar dysfunctions participate in the dyskinetic phenotype of PRRT2 knockout (KO) mice. We have investigated the effects of PRRT2 deficiency on the intrinsic excitability of GCs and the input-output relationships at the mossy fiber-GC synapses. We show that PRRT2 KO primary GCs display increased expression of Na+ channels, increased amplitude of Na+ currents and increased length of the axon initial segment, leading to an overall enhancement of intrinsic excitability. In acute PRRT2 KO cerebellar slices, GCs were more prone to action potential discharge in response to mossy fiber activation and exhibited an enhancement of transient and persistent Na+ currents, in the absence of changes at the mossy fiber-GC synapses. The results support a key role of PRRT2 expressed in GCs in the physiological regulation of the excitatory input to the cerebellum and are consistent with a major role of a cerebellar dysfunction in the pathogenesis of the PRRT2-linked paroxysmal pathologies.

Association of an insertion mutation in PRRT2 with hereditary spastic paraplegia accompanied by polyneuropathy.

BACKGROUND: Hereditary spastic paraplegia is a rare familial hereditary neurodegenerative disease caused by multiple autosomal dominant mutations. More than 50 mutant genes have been reported to be associated with this disease. METHODS: In this study, we have reported a rare insertion mutation site in PRRT2 that caused a familial disorder of hereditary spastic paraplegia accompanied by polyneuropathy. RESULTS: We used second-generation sequencing of samples of the proband's familial genome and found an insertion mutation of C/CC in NM_001256443:c.641dupC that was localized to the second exon of PRRT2. This functional mutation can cause an amino acid sequence change (arginine >proline) and dysfunctional neuronal transmembrane proteins, which might have been related to the onset of hereditary spastic paraplegia accompanied by polyneuropathy in the family reported in this study. CONCLUSION: The discovery of this mutation site provides an important theoretical basis for specific gene-based diagnosis and treatment of hereditary spastic paraplegia.

Orexin A promotes progesterone secretion in luteinized granulose cells of Mongolian Ovis aries ovary by PRRT2 and ABCG1 genes.

To study the role of orexin A in the reproductive regulation of Mongolian sheep, ovine ovarian granulosa cells were cultured in vitro. The cells were divided into groups after luteinization, the experimental group was given orexin A and the transcriptome was sequenced together with that of the control group. The different genes related to reproduction were screened out. qRT-PCR, western blot and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) were used to verify the selected genes and detect the effect on progesterone secretion. In total, 123 differentially expressed genes were obtained by sequencing. Six genes with high expression related to reproduction (PRRT2, ABCG1, SOX4, TBX3, ID1 and ATP8) were screened. The results of qRT-PCR were consistent with those of sequencing; western blot and ELISA were used to verify the protein levels of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) and its related PRRT2 and ABCG1, and to detect their effect on progesterone secretion. Validation results were consistent with those of qRT-PCR and sequencing. The experimental group was given orexin A and compared with the control group. Expression of PRRT2 protein was significantly increased (P < 0.05), ABCG1 protein expression was significantly decreased (P < 0.05), StAR expression was significantly increased (P < 0.05), and progesterone secretion was significantly increased (P < 0.05). The results showed that orexin A promoted the expression of StAR by upregulating PRRT2 and downregulating ABCG1, therefore affecting secretion of progesterone. Gene expression characteristics of orexin A affecting progesterone secretion were preliminarily explored; this study provides a theoretical basis for further study on signalling pathways and reproductive regulation in Mongolian sheep.

PRRT2 frameshift mutation reduces its mRNA stability resulting loss of function in paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia.

A heterozygous frameshift PRRT2 mutation (c.649_650InsC) has been identified as the major causative mutation in several paroxysmal disorders, including paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia (PKD). Since PKD is an autosomal dominant disorder and since the frameshift mutations of PRRT2 may create a truncated protein, it remains unclear whether this mutation causes toxic gain of function or loss of function. By generating Prrt2 knock-in (KI) mice that express human PRRT2 with the c.649_650InsC mutation and by comparing the phenotypes of Prrt2 KI mice with knockout (KO) mice, we find that both KI and KO mice show the same extents of impaired rotarod and balance beam performance as well as the same sensitivity to seizure induction. Both KI and KO mice show altered formation of SNARE complex and number of synaptic vesicles. In addition, western blotting of KI mouse brain tissues could not detect truncated PRRT2 protein that might be generated by the c.649_650InsC mutation. Moreover, the level of PRRT2 mRNA in KI mice is significantly decreased, recapitulating the reduction of PRRT2 mRNA reported in PKD patients. Furthermore, mutant PRRT2 mRNA is unstable and showed shortened half-life than wild-type PRRT2 mRNA. Our studies suggest that PRRT2 frameshift mutation leads to the loss of function by affecting its mRNA stability, a mechanism that is different from haploinsufficiency due to dysfunctional protein or gain of function caused by truncated protein.

The Phenotypic and Genetic Spectrum of Paroxysmal Kinesigenic Dyskinesia in China.

BACKGROUND: Paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia is a spectrum of involuntary dyskinetic disorders with high clinical and genetic heterogeneity. Mutations in proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 have been identified as the major pathogenic factor. OBJECTIVES: We analyzed 600 paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia patients nationwide who were identified by the China Paroxysmal Dyskinesia Collaborative Group to summarize the clinical phenotypes and genetic features of paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia in China and to provide new thoughts on diagnosis and therapy. METHODS: The China Paroxysmal Dyskinesia Collaborative Group was composed of departments of neurology from 22 hospitals. Clinical manifestations and proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 screening results were recorded using unified paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia registration forms. Genotype-phenotype correlation analyses were conducted in patients with and without proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 mutations. High-knee exercises were applied in partial patients as a new diagnostic test to induce attacks. RESULTS: Kinesigenic triggers, male predilection, dystonic attacks, aura, complicated forms of paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia, clustering in patients with family history, and dramatic responses to antiepileptic treatment were the prominent features in this multicenter study. Clinical analysis showed that proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 mutation carriers were prone to present at a younger age and have longer attack duration, bilateral limb involvement, choreic attacks, a complicated form of paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia, family history, and more forms of dyskinesia. The new high-knee-exercise test efficiently induced attacks and could assist in diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: We propose recommendations regarding diagnostic criteria for paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia based on this large clinical study of paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia. The findings offered some new insights into the diagnosis and treatment of paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia and might help in building standardized paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia clinical evaluations and therapies. © 2020 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Constitutive Inactivation of the PRRT2 Gene Alters Short-Term Synaptic Plasticity and Promotes Network Hyperexcitability in Hippocampal Neurons.

Mutations in PRoline-Rich Transmembrane protein 2 (PRRT2) underlie a group of paroxysmal disorders including epilepsy, kinesigenic dyskinesia and migraine. Most of the mutations lead to impaired PRRT2 expression and/or function, emphasizing the pathogenic role of the PRRT2 deficiency. In this work, we investigated the phenotype of primary hippocampal neurons obtained from mouse embryos in which the PRRT2 gene was constitutively inactivated. Although PRRT2 is expressed by both excitatory and inhibitory neurons, its deletion decreases the number of excitatory synapses without significantly affecting the number of inhibitory synapses or the nerve terminal ultrastructure. Analysis of synaptic function in primary PRRT2 knockout excitatory neurons by live imaging and electrophysiology showed slowdown of the kinetics of exocytosis, weakened spontaneous and evoked synaptic transmission and markedly increased facilitation. Inhibitory neurons showed strengthening of basal synaptic transmission, accompanied by faster depression. At the network level these complex synaptic effects resulted in a state of heightened spontaneous and evoked activity that was associated with increased excitability of excitatory neurons in both PRRT2 knockout primary cultures and acute hippocampal slices. The data indicate the existence of network instability/hyperexcitability as the possible basis of the paroxysmal phenotypes associated with PRRT2 mutations.

Episodic Ataxias: Faux or Real?

The term Episodic Ataxias (EA) was originally used for a few autosomal dominant diseases, characterized by attacks of cerebellar dysfunction of variable duration and frequency, often accompanied by other ictal and interictal signs. The original group subsequently grew to include other very rare EAs, frequently reported in single families, for some of which no responsible gene was found. The clinical spectrum of these diseases has been enormously amplified over time. In addition, episodes of ataxia have been described as phenotypic variants in the context of several different disorders. The whole group is somewhat confused, since a strong evidence linking the mutation to a given phenotype has not always been established. In this review we will collect and examine all instances of ataxia episodes reported so far, emphasizing those for which the pathophysiology and the clinical spectrum is best defined.

PRRT2 deficiency induces paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia by influencing synaptic function in the primary motor cortex of rats.

Proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 (PRRT2) was identified as the causative gene of paroxysmal kinesigenic choreoathetosis (PKC) as well as various other neurological diseases. However, the molecular mechanisms of how mutant PRRT2 leads to abnormal synaptic function and triggers PKC are still obscure. We generated a Prrt2 truncated mutant rat model which shows spontaneous PKC-like attacks with a relative low frequency as well as increased susceptibility to pentylenetetrazol (PTZ)-induced seizures. We demonstrate that PRRT2 is expressed on both pre- and post-synaptic membranes in the M1 cortex. PRRT2 negatively regulates SNARE complex assembly through interaction with SNAP25, STX1A, and VAMP2. In the M1 cortex of the rat model, release of amino acid neurotransmitters is increased. Protein levels of glutamate receptor subunit GRIA1 are significantly increased in PRRT2 mutant rats, while GABA receptor subunits GABRA1 are significantly reduced. Both frequency and amplitude of mEPSC are significantly increased, while amplitude of mIPSC is decreased and the ratio of mEPSC/mIPSC is significantly increased. The balance between excitatory and inhibitory neuronal activity is disrupted, which could lead to abnormal neuronal hyperexcitability. These results provide new insights into the function of PRRT2 in synaptic transmission and movement control, as well as the pathogenic mechanism underlying PKC.

Unravelling of the paroxysmal dyskinesias.

Paroxysmal dyskinesias (PxD) refer to a rare group of clinically and genetically heterogeneous disorders presenting with recurrent attacks of abnormal movements, typically dystonia, chorea or a combination thereof, without loss of consciousness. Classically, PxD have been categorised according to their triggers and duration of the attacks, but increasing evidence suggests that there is a certain degree of clinical and genetic overlap and challenges the concept that one phenotype is attributable to one single aetiology. Here we review the increasing spectrum of genetic conditions, as well as of other non-genetic disorders, that might present with PxD, provide criteria for case definition and propose a diagnostic workup to reach a definitive diagnosis, on which treatment is heavily dependent.

PRRT2 missense mutations cluster near C-terminus and frequently lead to protein mislocalization.

OBJECTIVE: Variants in human PRRT2 cause paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia (PKD) and other neurological disorders. Most reported variants resulting in truncating proteins failed to localize to cytoplasmic membrane. The present study identifies novel PRRT2 variants in PKD and epilepsy patients and evaluates the functional consequences of PRRT2 missense variations. METHODS: We investigated two families with PKD and epilepsies using Sanger sequencing and a multiple gene panel. Subcellular localization of mutant proteins was investigated using confocal microscopy and cell surface biotinylation assay in Prrt2-transfected cells. RESULTS: Two novel PRRT2 variants, p.His232Glnfs*10 and p.Leu298Pro, were identified, and functional study revealed impaired localization of both mutant proteins to the plasma membrane. Further investigation of other reported missense variants revealed decreased protein targeting to the plasma membrane in eight of the 13 missense variants examined (p.Trp281Arg, p.Ala287Thr, p.Ala291Val, p.Arg295Gln, p.Leu298Pro, p.Ala306Asp, p.Gly324Glu, and p.Gly324Arg). In contrast, all benign variants we tested exhibited predominant localization to the plasma membrane similar to wild-type Prrt2. Most likely pathogenic variants were located at conserved amino acid residues near the C-terminus, whereas truncating variants spread throughout the gene. SIGNIFICANCE: PRRT2 missense variants clustering at the C-terminus often lead to protein mislocalization. Failure in protein targeting to the plasma membrane by PRRT2 variants may be a key mechanism in causing PKD and related neurological disorders.

Clinical features of patients with paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia, mutation screening of PRRT2 and the effects of morning draughts of oxcarbazepine.

BACKGROUND: The objective of this study was to summarize clinical features and PRRT2 mutations of paediatric paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia (PKD) patients and observe the tolerability and effects of morning draughts of oxcarbazepine. METHODS: Twenty patients diagnosed with PKD at Children's Hospital of Fudan University between January 2011 and December 2015 were enrolled. These patients' medical records were reviewed. Peripheral venous blood was obtained from all enrolled patients, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and Sanger sequencing were used to sequence proline-rich transmembrane protein 2 (PRRT2) gene mutations. Clinical features of PKD patients with and without PRRT2 mutations were compared. All enrolled patients were treated with morning draughts of oxcarbazepine (OXC). The starting dose was 5 mg/kg·d, and the dose was increased by 5 mg/kg·d each week until attacks stopped. Effective doses and adverse effects were recorded. RESULTS: For all enrolled patients, dyskinesia was triggered by sudden movement. Dyskinetic movement usually involved the limbs and was bilateral; the majority of enrolled patients exhibited both dystonia and choreoathetosis. We identified PRRT2 mutations in 5 patients, including 4 familial patients and 1 sporadic patient. All 20 patients took low doses of OXC (5-20 mg/kg·d) as draughts in the morning, and dyskinesia attacks stopped in 19 patients. CONCLUSIONS: Paediatric PKD patients have various phenotypes. PRRT2 mutations are common in familial cases. OXC taken as morning draughts can be a treatment option for paediatric PKD patients.