الملخص
Se presenta un caso clínico de Síndrome de Klinefelter y se revisan que los aspectos en relación al sueño en estos pacientes, siendo relevante a ser abordado y estudiado debido a la relación causal entre el metabolismo de esteroides sexuales afectados. En especial la testosterona y cómo esto influye en la microarquitectura del sueño y la probabilidad de presentar síndrome de apnea obstructiva del sueño, con las repercusiones cognitivas que pueden sumarse a las ya descritas por el síndrome en si. De allí la importancia de un seguimiento y abordaje dirigido en este aspecto, al momento del diagnóstico y en el seguimiento a largo plazo.
A clinical case of Klinefelter's Syndrome is presented and the aspects related to sleep in these patients are reviewed, being relevant to be addressed and studied due to the causal relationship between the metabolism of affected sex steroids, especially testosterone and how this influences the microarchitecture of sleep and the probability of presenting obstructive sleep apnea syndrome with the cognitive repercussions that can be added to those already described by the syndrome itself. Hence the importance of a targeted follow-up and approach in this aspect, at the time of diagnosis and in long-term follow-up.
الموضوعات
Humans , Male , Child , Sleep , Klinefelter Syndrome/diagnosis , Testosterone , Vitamin Dالملخص
Resumen: Introducción: El síndrome de Klinefelter y sus variantes, como alteración en el número de cromosomas sexuales, se encuentra entre los trastornos del desarrollo sexual. Sus portadores manifiestan hipogonadismo hipergonadotrófico en la pubertad; las variantes severas presentan además problemas neurocognitivos y del lenguaje desde edades tempranas. Objetivo: Describir dos pacientes portadores de mal formación genital con diagnóstico genético de variantes severas de síndrome de Klinefelter; y revisar aspectos clínicos y terapéuticos. Casos Clínicos: Caso 1: Diagnóstico de genitales atípicos al nacer: Falo pequeño y corvo con meato uretral a nivel escrotal y escroto bífido. Sin otra anomalía somática, excepto sutil clinodactilia del 5 dedo. Cariotipo: 49,XXXXY. Al año de vida se reconstruyeron los genitales. Evolucionó con retraso global del desarrollo, principalmente del lenguaje, manejado con estimulación temprana kinésica y fonoaudiológica desde los 2 meses, logró integrarse en un jardín de infantes. Caso 2: Al mes de vida se constató falo pequeño y corvo severo (más de 70°), testículos en bolsa. Cariotipo: 48,XXYY. Al año de vida se corrigió malformación del pene. Evolucionó con retraso global del desarrollo, fundamentalmente en el lenguaje expresivo, y fue manejado con el equipo de estimulación temprana desde los 4 meses, logrando adaptación en un jardín de infantes. Conclusión: Las malformaciones genitales condujeron al diagnóstico de variantes severas de síndrome de Klin efelter, y fueron corregidas alrededor del año de vida. La identificación temprana de estas variantes permitió la intervención del equipo de neuroestimulación, favoreciendo el desarrollo neurocognitivo y la integración social de estos niños.
Abstract: Introduction: Among the disorders of sexual development, Klinefelter syndrome and its variants are classified as an alteration in the number of sex chromosomes. These patients show signs of hypergonadotropic hypogonadism at puberty, however cases of severe variants also present neurocognitive and language problems from an early age. Objective: To describe two patients with genital malformation with genetic diagnosis of severe variants of Klinefelter syndrome, and to review clinical and therapeutic aspects. Clinical Cases: Case 1: Diagnosis of atypical genitalia at birth: Small and curved phallus with the urethral meatus at scrotal level, and bifid scrotum. No other somatic abnormality was observed, except for subtle clinodactyly of the fifth finger. Karyotype: 49, XXXXY. At one year of life, genitalia were reconstructed. The patient presented a global developmental delay, mainly in language, which was managed with early stimulation and speech and language therapy since he was two months old. Finally, he was able to attend kindergarten. Case 2: At one month of life, a small and severe curved phallus (more than 70°) was observed, and testicles were in the scrotum. Karyotype: 48, XXYY. At one year of life, the penile malformation was corrected. The patient presented global developmental delay, mainly in expressive language which was managed with early stimulation since the age of four months, achieving kindergarten attendance. Conclusion: Genital malformations led to the diagno sis of severe variants of Klinefelter syndrome, and were corrected around the year of life. The early identification of these variants allowed the intervention of the neurostimulation team, favoring the neurocognitive development and social integration of these children.
الموضوعات
Humans , Male , Female , Infant, Newborn , Genitalia/abnormalities , Klinefelter Syndrome/diagnosis , Severity of Illness Index , Klinefelter Syndrome/pathologyالملخص
Klinefelter syndrome (47, XXY in most cases) is a frequently underdiagnosed chromosomal anomaly associated with multiple comorbidities in adult life. Patients with Klinefelter syndrome have a higher risk of cancer. Specifically, these patients have a higher risk for mediastinal germ cell tumors. It is estimated that 8% of male patients with mediastinal tumors have Klinefelter. We report a 42-years-old male who suffered recurrent respiratory infections. During the study, a mediastinal mass was found, whose pathological study disclosed a type B thymoma. The patient had a history of infertility, high stature, gynecomastia, obesity with gynecoid distribution of body fat and testicular atrophy. A karyotype was requested (47, XXY), confirming the diagnosis of Klinefelter syndrome.
الموضوعات
Humans , Male , Adult , Thymoma/pathology , Thymus Neoplasms/pathology , Klinefelter Syndrome/pathology , Thymoma/diagnostic imaging , Thymus Neoplasms/diagnosis , Radiography, Thoracic , Tomography, X-Ray Computed , Klinefelter Syndrome/diagnosis , Klinefelter Syndrome/genetics , Mediastinal Neoplasms/diagnosis , Mediastinal Neoplasms/pathologyالملخص
Klinefelter syndrome (KS) is the set of symptoms that result from the presence of an extra X chromosome in males. Postnatal population-based KS screening will enable timely diagnosis of this common chromosomal disease, providing the opportunity for early intervention and therapy at the time point when they are most effective and may prevent later symptoms or complications. Therefore, through this study, we introduced a simple high-resolution melting (HRM) assay for KS screening and evaluated its clinical sensitivity and specificity in three medical centers using 1373 clinical blood samples. The HRM assay utilized a single primer pair to simultaneously amplify specific regions in zinc finger protein, X-linked (ZFX) and zinc finger protein, Y-linked (ZFY). In cases of KS, the ratios of ZFX/ZFY are altered compared to those in normal males. As a result, the specific melting profiles differ and can be differentiated during data analysis. This HRM assay displayed high analytical specificity over a wide range of template DNA amounts (5 ng-50 ng) and reproducibility, high resolution for detecting KS mosaicism, and high clinical sensitivity (100%) and specificity (98.1%). Moreover, the HRM assay was rapid (2 h per run), inexpensive (0.2 USD per sample), easy to perform and automatic, and compatible with both whole blood samples and dried blood spots. Therefore, this HRM assay is an ideal postnatal population-based KS screening tool that can be used for different age groups.
الموضوعات
Humans , Infant , Infant, Newborn , Male , DNA/genetics , Dried Blood Spot Testing , Karyotyping , Klinefelter Syndrome/diagnosis , Kruppel-Like Transcription Factors/genetics , Mass Screening/methods , Polymerase Chain Reaction , Reproducibility of Results , Sensitivity and Specificityالملخص
Los craneofaringiomas son de los tumores hipofisarios más frecuentes en la niñez y, sea por su evolución o por el tratamiento que requieren, pueden comprometer el desarrollo puberal. El síndrome de Klinefelter es la causa más frecuente de hipogonadismo hipergonadotrópico en el varón. La presentación concomitante de ambas entidades es extremadamente baja (1/10(9)) y plantea un interrogante acerca de una probable asociación fisiopatológica. Se presenta el caso de un paciente belga de 18 años, con diagnóstico de craneofaringioma en la niñez y panhipopituitarismo luego del tratamiento quirúrgico y radioterápico. Al llegar a los 14 años, se inició la inducción puberal con gonadotropinas. Ante la falta de respuesta clínica, se completó una evaluación genética, que evidenció, de manera homogénea, una trisomía XXY. La falta de respuesta al tratamiento de inducción con gonadotropina exógena reveló la asociación de hipogonadismo primario y secundario, que demostró la importancia del seguimiento multidisciplinario que estos pacientes requieren.
Craniopharyngioma is the most common pituitary tumor in childhood. It can compromise the pubertal development because of its evolution or treatment. Syndrome of Klinefelter is the most common cause of hipergonadotrophic hypogonadism in males. The concomitant presentation of both entities is extremely low (1/10(9)) and the pathophysiological association is questionned. We present the case of a 18-year-old Belgian patient. He had a diagnosis of craniopharyngioma in childhood and he presented with panhypopituitarism after radiotherapy and surgical treatment. At the age of 14, he started pubertal induction with gonadotropin therapy without clinical response. A genetic evaluation confirmed a homogeneous 47, XXY karyotype. Failure of exogenous gonadotropin therapy revealed the hidden association of primary and secondary hypogonadism, demonstrating the importance of the followup and a multidisciplinary approach in these patients.
الموضوعات
Humans , Male , Adolescent , Pituitary Neoplasms/diagnosis , Craniopharyngioma/diagnosis , Klinefelter Syndrome/diagnosis , Pituitary Neoplasms/complications , Puberty , Craniopharyngioma/complications , Klinefelter Syndrome/complicationsالملخص
OBJETIVO: Identificar dados clínicos e laboratoriais que diferenciam os casos com síndrome de Klinefelter de acordo com a faixa etária. CASUÍSTICA E MÉTODOS: Foram incluídos todos os casos de hipogonadismo, ginecomastia e/ou infertilidade avaliados em hospital universitário cujo cariótipo foi realizado entre janeiro de 1989 e dezembro de 2011, totalizando 105 pacientes. Foram avaliados: idade na primeira consulta, relação entre envergadura e altura, pilificação pubiana, ginecomastia, tamanho testicular, hormônio luteinizante (LH), hormônio folículo-estimulante (FSH), testosterona e espermograma. RESULTADOS: Foram diagnosticados três casos com síndrome de Klinefelter (SK+) e 72 sem a síndrome (SK-). Dos casos com síndrome de Klinefelter, apenas sete (21,2%) foram diagnosticados antes dos 20 anos e dois (6,1%) antes dos 10 anos de idade. A idade na primeira consulta (em anos) foi semelhante nos dois grupos (SK+ = 31,3±12,9 e SK- = 27,6±12,1), o mesmo ocorrendo com a relação entre envergadura e altura e a presença de ginecomastia. No entanto, a pilificação pubiana foi menor no grupo SK+, o mesmo ocorrendo com a média do volume bitesticular e a testosterona, enquanto que o LH e o FSH foram mais elevados neste grupo, o mesmo ocorrendo com a frequência de azoospermia. CONCLUSÕES: A síndrome de Klinefelter ainda é pouco e tardiamente diagnosticada em nosso meio, sendo os dados de tamanho testicular, LH, FSH, testosterona e presença de azoospermia no espermograma os mais importantes para o seu diagnóstico, principalmente na puberdade e na vida adulta.
OBJECTIVE: To identify clinical and laboratory data which differentiate Klinefelter syndrome (KS) patients according to age group. METHODS: The study included all cases of hypogonadism, gynecomastia and/or infertility whose karyotype was performed at a university hospital from January 1989 to December 2011, in a total of 105 subjects. The following data were retrospectively analyzed: age at first visit, ratio of arm span to height, pubic hair, gynecomastia, testicular volume, luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), total testosterone (T), and spermiogram. RESULTS: During the study period, 33 patients were diagnosed with Klinefelter syndrome (KS+) and 72 were not (KS-). Out of all KS cases, only seven (21.2%) were diagnosed before 20 years old and two (6.1%) before 10 years old. Age at first consultation (in years) was similar in both groups (KS+ = 31.3±12.9 and KS- = 27.6±12.1), as were ratio of arm span to height and frequency of gynecomastia. However, in KS+ patients, pubic hair was less developed, testicular volume was smaller and testosterone levels were lower, while LH and FSH levels and frequency of azoospermia were higher. CONCLUSIONS: Klinefelter syndrome is both an under and late diagnosed condition. The most important data for diagnosis are testicular volume, hormone levels and presence of azoospermia in spermiogram, especially in puberty and adult life.
الموضوعات
Adolescent , Adult , Aged , Child , Humans , Male , Middle Aged , Young Adult , Klinefelter Syndrome/diagnosis , Age of Onset , Azoospermia/diagnosis , Chi-Square Distribution , Delayed Diagnosis , Gynecomastia/diagnosis , Karyotyping , Klinefelter Syndrome/genetics , Puberty, Delayed , Retrospective Studies , Statistics, Nonparametricالملخص
El Síndrome de Klinefelter (SK) es la anormalidad cromosómica más frecuente en los varones, con una prevalencia estimada de 1:600 recién nacidos. El objetivo de este trabajo fue establecer las distintas características de presentación del SK a distintas edades, incluyendo signos y síntomas clínicos, parámetros de laboratorio y otros exámenes complementarios. La franja etaria más frecuente de diagnóstico de SK fue entre los 11 y 20 años (46,8%). En 4 casos el diagnóstico fue prenatal. Los motivos de consulta más frecuentes en forma global fueron la presencia de testículos pequeños, infertilidad y criptorquidia. El cariotipo más prevalente fue el clásico 47,XXY (83,7%), seguido del mosaico 47,XXY/46,XY (7,1%). El promedio de talla de nuestros pacientes prepuberales no mostró diferencia con la población general. Por otro lado, los pacientes puberales presentaron un promedio de talla significativamente más alto, hallándose alrededor de 1 SDS. Hubo correlación entre la edad y el SDS de talla. La media de talla de los adultos fue 178,8 ± 9,0 cm; se observó un 62,5% de sobrepeso/obesidad (IMC ≥ 25,0 kg/m²). El 50% de nuestros pacientes con SK menores de 18 años presentaron trastornos neurocognitivos. El hallazgo clínico más frecuente entre los pacientes prepuberales fue la criptorquidia. En los puberales las consultas y hallazgos clínicos más frecuentes fueron: testículos pequeños, criptorquidia y ginecomastia. Todos nuestros pacientes en estadio de Tanner igual o mayor de III presentaron testículos más pequeños para su grado de desarrollo. Los valores de FSH y LH fueron normales en los pacientes prepuberales y comenzaron a aumentar en la pubertad. Los adultos consultaron más frecuentemente por hipotrofia testicular, infertilidad y en menor grado ginecomastia. Todos los pacientes presentaron testículos hipotróficos, con una mediana de volumen testicular de 3,5 (1-8) ml. El 56,4% presentaron función sexual normal; el resto tuvo algún tipo de disfunción sexual. La testosterona total (TT) fue normal en 45% de los pacientes, con descenso consistente con la edad, donde todos los pacientes mayores de 40 años presentaron TT subnormal. El 10,7% de los pacientes que efectuaron espermograma tuvo oligospermia severa, el resto presentó azoospermia. La densitometría ósea fue anormal en el 46,4% de los adultos estudiados. Sin embargo, no hubo diferencias significativas en la prevalencia de osteopenia y osteoporosis entre los pacientes con TT normal o subnormal.
Klinefelter syndrome (KS) is the most common chromosomal aberration among men, with an estimated prevalence of 1:600 newborns. It is an X chromosome polysomy, with X disomy being the most common variant (47,XXY). The aim of this study was to establish the characteristics of KS presentation at different ages, including signs and symptoms, laboratory parameters and other diagnostic tests. The diagnosis of KS was more frequent in the age group between 11 and 20 years (46.8%). Most of the patients (83.7%) showed the classic 47,XXY karyotype and 7.1% showed a 47,XXY/46,XY mosaicism. While mean prepubertal height was not different from the control population, it was significantly higher at puberty. Patients consulted most frequently for small testes, infertility and cryptorchidism. In four cases the diagnosis was prenatal. 50% of our patients younger than 18 years presented neurocognitive disorders. The more frequent clinical findings were cryptorchidism in prepubertal patients; small testes, cryptorchidism and gynecomastia in pubertal patients. All our patients in Tanner stage III or more presented small testes. FSH and LH levels were normal in prepubertal patients and increased abnormally at puberty. On the other hand, most adults consulted for small testes, infertility and gynecomastia. 43.6% of patients had decreased libido, sexual and/or ejaculatory dysfunction. In adults average height (178.8 ± 9.0 cm) and weight (83.6 ± 21.0 kg), were higher than in the normal population, however 8 patients (19%) had a height less tan 170 cm. There was 62.5% of overweight / obesity (BMI ≥ 25.0 kg/m²) in the whole group of adult patients. 35.2% had eunuchoid proportions. All patients had testicular hypotrophc, with a median testicular volume of 3.5 ml (range 1-8 ml). Total testosterone (TT) levels were normal in 45% of adult patients, showing significant correlation with age. All patients aged 40 or more years had subnormal TT levels. In patients who underwent semen analysis, severe oligospermia and azoospermia were found in 10.7% and 89.3% respectively. Bone mineral densitometry showed low bone mass in 46.4% of cases. No significant differences in the prevalence of osteopenia and osteoporosis were observed among patients with normal or subnormal TT.
الموضوعات
Humans , Male , Infant, Newborn , Infant , Child, Preschool , Child , Adolescent , Adult , Middle Aged , Klinefelter Syndrome/etiology , Klinefelter Syndrome/physiopathology , Anthropometry , Karyotype , Klinefelter Syndrome/diagnosisالملخص
Klinefelter’s syndrome is a sex chromosomal aneuploidy caused by an addition of X chromosome in males (47,XXY).Variants of this syndrome with X and Y polygamy are of rare occurrence. Here we describe a rare case of 48, XXXY Klinefelter’s variant from South India with a reported incidence of 1 per 17,000 to 1 per 50,000 male births. The presence of an extra X chromosome/s in these individuals has a great impact on the physical and cognitive functions, which could be attributed to gene dosage effects and genes involved in neurogenic development.
الموضوعات
Aneuploidy , Child , Developmental Disabilities/complications , Humans , In Situ Hybridization, Fluorescence , Klinefelter Syndrome/complications , Klinefelter Syndrome/diagnosis , Klinefelter Syndrome/genetics , Maleالملخص
Se presentó un paciente blanco, masculino, de 21 años de edad con dismorfia facial, hipogenitalismo, anomalías esqueléticas y retraso mental severo. Para el diagnóstico de esta afección se aplicó el método clínico a través de la técnica comparativa o de patrón. Se realizó estudio cromosómico en sangre periférica, se emplearon técnicas convencionales (banda GTG) confirmándose el diagnóstico del Síndrome 48, XXXY. Resulta de gran importancia tener en cuenta las manifestaciones clínicas antes mencionadas para establecer el diagnóstico precoz de este síndrome, ofrecer asesoramiento genético oportuno a los padres, así como rehabilitar física, psíquica y socialmente a estos pacientes.
A 21 years old masculine white patient with facial dysmorphia, hypogenitalism, skeletal anomalies and severe mental delay was presented. For the diagnosis of this affection the clinical method through the comparative or pattern technique was applied. The chromosomal study was carried out in peripheral blood, conventional techniques were used being confirmed the diagnosis of the 48, XXXY Syndrome. It is important to take into account the clinical manifestations before mentioned in order to establish early diagnosis, rehabilitate these patients physically psychically and socially and to offer a genetic counselling to the family.
الموضوعات
Humans , Male , Genetic Counseling , Klinefelter Syndrome/diagnosisالملخص
The Klinefelter syndrome is most common chromosomal cause of male infertility. However, the many cases of the syndrome remain undiagnosed due to variations in clinical presentation. A patient attended to surgical OPD with complaints of loss of secondary sexual characteristics and infertility. Physical examination revealed tall stature, thin built, small testes size, and absence of beard and pubic hairs. Karyotype and biochemical tests were performed to detect chromosomal abnormality as well hormonal level to confirm the diagnosis of androgen deficiency syndrome. Chromosomal complement confirmed the case of Klinefelter syndrome (47, XXY) causing androgen deficiency. Timely detection of Klinefelter syndrome is important to formulate further treatment modalities for the benefit of the patient.
الموضوعات
Adult , Androgens/deficiency , Chromosomes, Human, X , Congenital Abnormalities , Humans , Karyotyping , Klinefelter Syndrome/diagnosis , Male , Testisالموضوعات
Humans , Male , Adult , Gynecomastia/diagnosis , Klinefelter Syndrome/diagnosis , Diagnosis, Differentialالملخص
A elaboraçäo desta pesquisa tem a finalidade de fornecer, aos profissionais da área da saúde, subsídios para serem utilizados ao se confrontarem inesperadamente com casos da síndrome de Klinefelter. Nessa situaçäo os profissionais encontram dificuldades em determinar o mecanismo genético de transmissäo hereditária da anomalia, bem como relacioná-la com alguma síndrome conhecida tendo que recorrer freqüentemente à bibliografia especializada, muitas vezes escassa e onerosa. Tendo em vista que os distúrbios genéricos säo estudados somente nos cursos de graduaçäo e com um enfoque muito superficial, empreendeu-se a pesquisa objetivando auxiliar o profissional em seu diagnóstico.(au)
الموضوعات
Humans , Male , Adolescent , Chromosome Aberrations , Hypogonadism , Mouth Abnormalities , Seminiferous Tubules , Klinefelter Syndrome/diagnosisالملخص
A síndrome de Klinefelter (SK) resulta de uma deficiência genética com cariótipo 47,XXY, que pode levar ao hipogonadismo hipergonadotrófico, azoospermia e hipodesenvolvimento dos caracteres sexuais secundários. O mecanismo exato que determina a deficiência androgênica hão é ainda totalmente conhecido, sendo variável o grau de disfunção das células de Leydig. É uma doença de curso crônico com sérias repercussões sobre o aparelho reprodutor masculino, sendo importante causa de infertilidade em nível mundial. Apresentamos um homem de 33 anos de idade que evoluiu com ginecomastia bilateral, progressiva e dolorosa, hipogonadismo hipergonadotrófico e labilidade emocional decorrente do quadro. A presença de sinais e sintomas de deficiência de androgênios aliados à demonstração de cariótipo 47,XXY levaram ao diagnóstico de SK, envolvendo o paciente em uma rara síndrome com infertilidade, feminização e suas implicações biopsicossociais.
الموضوعات
Humans , Male , Klinefelter Syndrome/diagnosis , Gynecomastia , Hypogonadism , Infertility, Male , Klinefelter Syndrome/complicationsالملخص
Informamos de un caso atípico de síndrome de Klinefelter, detectado al nacimiento por la presencia de múltiples signos menores e hidrocefalia, los que motivaron el estudio cromosómico. A los 8 años, el niño presenta un severo deterioro neurológico, retardo mental y convulsiones. Tanto los hallazgos neonatales como el aspecto neurológico de nuestro paciente son infrecuentes en el síndrome de Klinefelter. Se discuten las posibles causas determinantes de la variabilidad fenotípica en este síndrome.
الموضوعات
Humans , Male , Infant, Newborn , Infant , Child, Preschool , Child , Genetic Variation , Nervous System Malformations/diagnosis , Klinefelter Syndrome/diagnosis , Klinefelter Syndrome/genetics , Dental Enamel Hypoplasia , Infertility, Male/genetics , Intellectual Disability , Mosaicism/diagnosis , Obesity , Seizures/drug therapy , Sex Chromosome Aberrationsالملخص
Se revisan los aspectos clínicos y de laboratorio de 18 pacientes con síndrome de Klinefelter. El síndrome de Klinefelter es la causa congénita más frecuente de hipogonadismo hipergonadotropo y afecta a 1 de cada 500 varones. El diagnóstico se sospecha en un adolescente que falla en progresar en forma normal durante la pubertad y cuyos testículos son pequeños y firmes. El diagnóstico se confirma al encontrar gonadotrofinas elevadas y en en el cariotipo un cromosoma X extra. El diagnóstico precoz permite instaurar un tratamiento a los 11 o 12 años, permitiendo que la pubertad progrese en armonía, con la de sus pares y evita el riesgo de osteoporosis a futuro. En adultos, el tratamiento con enantato de testosterona o parches transdérmicos ejerce efectos positivos en la masa ósea, muscular y en la libido
الموضوعات
Humans , Male , Child , Adolescent , Adult , Klinefelter Syndrome/diagnosis , Gynecomastia/epidemiology , Karyotyping , Oligospermia/epidemiologyالملخص
El hipogonadismo masculino representa una diminución de la función testicular con una baja en la producción de testosterona e infertilidad. Puede ser ocasionado por un problema intrínseco de los testículos (hipogonadismo primario), una falla del eje hipotálamo-hipofisiario (hipogonadismo secundario) o una respuesta disminuída o ausente de los órganos blanco a los andrógenos (resistencia androgénica). Los síntomas del hipogonadismo incluyen la caída del vello corporal, disminución de la función sexual y cambios de la voz. Dependiendo de la edad de aparición puede presentarse atrofia testicular, hábito eunocoide y ginecomastia. A largo plazo puede presentarse osteoporosis. El diagnóstico se sospecha clínicamente y se establece con la demostración de concentraciones bajas de testosterona sanguínea. Si existe un aumento concomitante de las gonadotropinas circulantes, Hormona Folículo Estimulante y Hormona Luteinizante, se habla de un hipogonadismo primario; pero si ambas están disminuidas el hipogonadismo es secundario. Existen diferentes formas de testosterona para el tratamiento de los pacientes con hipogonadismo; la más común, es la testosterona de depósito (enantato o cipionato) la cual se inyecta por vía intramuscular. La terapia actual consiste en la administración de testosterona por vía transdérmica, no escrotal, obteniéndose una concentración normal de testosterona con preservación del ritmo cardíaco