El papel de la mentalidad de crecimiento en el desempeño de estudiantes de escuela primaria / The Role Of Growth Mindset In Elementary School Children's Performance

Objetivo. Estudiar la relación entre el tipo de mentalidad y el desempeño en comprensión lectora y aritmética de 247 estudiantes de 9 a 12 años de edad de dos escuelas de Argentina. Método. Los participantes completaron un cuestionario basado en una Escala de Mentalidad de Crecimiento y pruebas estandarizadas de comprensión lectora y cálculo aritmético. Además, se utilizaron las calificaciones escolares proporcionadas por docentes y datos sobre el estatus social (ES) aportados por padres/cuidadores. El diseño fue no experimental y transversal. Resultados. Los análisis de regresión jerárquica mostraron que a mayor mentalidad de crecimiento, mejor desempeño escolar, aún al controlar el efecto del ES. La relación del desempeño con las calificaciones fue más fuerte que con las pruebas estandarizadas.

Objective. The aim of the paper was to study the relation between mindset and reading comprehension and arithmetic performance of 247 students aged 9 to 12 years from two schools in Argentina. Method. Participants were asked to complete a questionnaire based on a Growth Mindset Scale, and standardized tests of reading comprehension and arithmetic calculation. In addition, school grades provided by teachers and social status data provided by parents/caregivers were used. The design was non-experimental and cross-sectional. Results. Hierarchical regression analyzes showed that the higher the growth mindset, the better the school performance, even when controlling for the effect of social status on these variables. The relation of performance with grades was stronger than with standardized tests.

Mediación parental en el uso de tecnologías móviles en niños y niñas costarricenses: Una aproximación metodológica mixta / The meaning of concepts dealing with basic emotions in children and adults

Resumen Aunque las emociones básicas son consideradas universales, su significado varía según las culturas y los grupos sociales. En el marco de la construcción social de los significados, aquí se analizan y comparan las representaciones semánticas de seis emociones básicas (alegría, tristeza, enojo, miedo, sorpresa, asco) activadas por 78 niños (9 a 11 años) y 78 adultos (20 a 40 años). En base a una tarea de producción de atributos semánticos, se construyó la representación semántica asociada a cada emoción para cada rango etario. Luego, utilizando la metodología provista por el análisis de redes sociales (ARS), se analizó la calidad intrínseca y las diferencias en cantidad y tipos de atributos, estructura de las redes, densidad y nivel de entropía, y el uso de la definición por negación. Los resultados indicaron que los mapas semánticos de niños y mayores demuestran que los adultos producen mayor cantidad y diversidad de atributos que los niños, pero que ambas poblaciones comparten el núcleo del significado de los conceptos evaluados. Asimismo, muestra que la escolarización conduce a la generación de más atributos taxonómicos, que en los niños prevalecen los atributos introspectivos, que la densidad y la entropía revelan cómo los conceptos se vinculan entre sí diferencialmente en ambas poblaciones y finalmente que, frente a la dificultad para encontrar definidoras de pertenencia a una clase, los niños recurren a operaciones de contraste categorial. Entre las redes semánticas de adultos y de niños se encuentran continuidades y divergencias. En ambos grupos se encuentran separadas las emociones positivas de las negativas, lo cual es consistente con las teorías que sostienen la importancia de la valencia hedónica en la comprensión de las emociones.

Abstract Although basic emotions are considered universal, their representation, associations and meaning vary among cultures and social groups. Within the framework of the socio-constructivist theory, where the meanings develop in the social context, this paper analyzes and compares the semantic representations of six basic emotions (Joy, Sadness, Anger, Fear, Surprise and Disgust), evoked by 78 children between 9 and 11 years old and 78 adults between 20 and 40 years old. Participants had to list a series of properties/features for each concept in a Property Listing Task (PLT). With the lists produced by the participants, their frequencies and other statistical properties were calculated, and the matrix of distances between concepts was obtained from the vectors defined by each of them. Thus, using the six aforementioned emotions as stimuli, the semantic representation associated with each emotion was elaborated for each age range. Once these were obtained, an analysis was carried out to evaluate the intrinsic quality and the differences in: (1) quantity and types of features produced; (2) structure of each of the semantic networks obtained, both by means of quadratic assignment procedure (QAP) and hierarchical clustering algorithms; (3) network density (that describes the portion of the potential connections in a network that are actual connections) and entropy level (that describe the level of randomness and the amount of information encoded in a network); (4) comparative use of definition by negation; (5) qualitative analysis of the features associated with each emotional concept. To carry out the bulk of these activities and analysis, we used the tools and procedures provided by Social Network Analysis (SNA). As a result: (1) regarding the number of features, adults produced significantly more associations. A chi-square analysis found significant differences between groups in the type of features evoked, with a primacy of taxonomic for adults and introspective for children; (2) the quadratic assignment procedure found a significant level of association of .59 between the two age groups. The groupings performed at the lowest level of demand for linkage between cluster members distinguish positive emotions from negative ones; higher levels of demand begin to disaggregate the groupings: first fear and sadness are separated, then anger, then the dyad constituted by both versions of disgust. The emotion of greater commonality between children and adults is joy; (3) the density of the total network is higher in children than in adults, and the concepts of joy, disgust and sadness present a lower entropy in children than in adults; (4) Children produce considerably more definitions by the negative than adults; (5) the most similar emotion between both groups is joy and the most dissimilar is disgust. In children, disgust responds to gustatory stimuli, in adults it is used with social metaphorical value. The results obtained show the semantic representation of basic emotions in children and adults, finding both continuities (e. g. joy) and divergences (e. g. disgust) associated with the context and life experience. In both age groups, positive and negative emotions are found to be separated, which is consistent with theories on the importance of hedonic valence in the understanding of emotions. There are also differences in categorization, either more thematically or taxonomically oriented.

Desarrollo y validación del Cuestionario de Funciones Ejecutivas en niños de 9 a 12 años (CUFE) / Development and Validation of the Executive Function Questionnaire (CUFE) for Children aged 9-12 Years / Desenvolvimento e validação do Questionário de Funções Executivas em crianças de 9 a 12 anos (CUFE)

El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo desarrollar y validar el Cuestionario de Funciones Ejecutivas (CUFE), un cuestionario accesible para evaluar las tres principales funciones ejecutivas (memoria de trabajo, inhibición y flexibilidad cognitiva) en niños de 9 a 12 años y, así, proporcionar valores descriptivos de referencia y evidencias acerca de su confiabilidad y validez. Para ello se analizó su funcionamiento en una muestra de 269 niños argentinos de 9 a 12 años de edad, alumnos del segundo ciclo de la escuela primaria. El análisis factorial exploratorio reveló una estructura de tres factores que explicaban 49.08 % de la varianza, con cargas factoriales unidimensionales y satisfactorias. Los factores retenidos presentaron buenos índices de confiabilidad y fueron llamados: memoria de trabajo, inhibición y flexibilidad y con-trol emocional. La memoria de trabajo se asoció con la comprensión lectora, el cálculo matemático y las calificaciones escolares de Prácticas del lenguaje y Matemática. Las restantes dos subescalas se asociaron con las calificaciones escolares de ambas asignaturas. Las dimensiones del cuestionario coinciden con los actuales modelos teóricos de funcionamiento ejecutivo. En función de las evidencias de validez y confiabilidad, el CUFE se presenta como un instrumento ecológico y valioso para la medición de las funciones ejecutivas en el contexto de la evaluación infantil

The present study aimed to develop and validate an accessible questionnaire to assess the three core execu-tive functions (working memory, inhibition, cognitive flexibility) in children aged 9-12 years: the Executive Function Questionnaire (CUFE), and to provide descrip-tive baseline values and evidence about its reliability and validity. The questionnaire was tested on a sample of 269 Argentinean children from 9 to 12 years old. Children attended elementary schools in Mar del Plata's city. The exploratory factorial analysis revealed a three-factor structure that explained 49.08% of the variance. The items were unidimensional and showed satisfactory factor loadings. The retained factors presented good reliability and were called working memory, inhibition and flexibility, and emotional control. Working memory was associated with reading comprehension, mathemat-ical skills, and school grades (language practices and mathematics). Inhibition and flexibility, and emotional control were associated with school grades. The factors were consistent with current theoretical models on executive functioning. Based on the evidence obtained, the cufe represents an ecological and valuable instru-ment for measuring executive functions on children

O presente estudo teve como objetivo desenvolver e validar um questionário acessível para avaliar as três principais funções executivas (memória de trabalho, inibição, flexibilidade cognitiva) em crianças de 9 a 12 anos: o Questionário de Funções Executivas (cufe); e fornecer valores de referência descritivos e evidên-cias sobre sua confiabilidade e validade. Para tanto, foi analisado seu funcionamento em uma amostra de 269 crianças argentinas entre 9 e 12 anos, estudantes do se-gundo ciclo do ensino fundamental. A análise fatorial exploratória revelou uma estrutura de três fatores que explicou 49.08% da variância, com cargas fatoriais unidi-mensionais satisfatórias. Os fatores retidos apresentaram bons índices de confiabilidade e foram denominados Memória de trabalho, Inibição e Flexibilidade e con-trole emocional. A memória de trabalho foi associada à compreensão de leitura, ao cálculo matemático e às notas escolares de Prática de Linguagem e Matemática. As duas subescalas restantes foram associadas às notas escolares de ambas as disciplinas. As dimensões do ques-tionário coincidem com os modelos teóricos atuais de funcionamento executivo. Com base nas evidências de validade e confiabilidade, o cufe apresenta-se como um instrumento ecológico e valioso para a mensuração das funções executivas no contexto da avaliação infantil

Relaciones conceptuales: comparación entre Niños, Adultos Jóvenes y Adultos Mayores / Conceptual relationships: comparison between Children, Young Adults and Older Adults Artículo barra lateral

El objetivo general del presente trabajo fue estudiar qué tipos de relación conceptual utilizan niños en edad escolar, adultos jóvenes y adultos mayores, ya que se presume que a lo largo del desarrollo varía la preferencia por los tipos de relación conceptual; no obstante, los estudios sobre el tema son escasos y sus resultados son divergentes. Para esto, 226 niños de 6 a 12 años, 300 adultos de 20 a 40 años, y 300 adultos mayores de 60 años realizaron una tarea de producción de atributos de conceptos de seres vivos y no vivos. En dicha tarea, los participantes proporcionaron atributos a partir de conceptos tales como "hormiga" y "pirámide". Los atributos fueron codificados según fuesen taxonómicos ("es un animal"), perceptivos ("es largo") o temáticos ("se encuentra en Egipto"). Los resultados, producto del análisis de comparación de medias, indican que la producción de atributos taxonómicos fue significativamente mayor para los adultos jóvenes que para los adultos mayores y los niños, cuya producción taxonómica fue pareja. En cuanto a la producción temática, esta fue alta y homogénea en los tres grupos de edad. Por último, para el dominio de los seres no vivos, los atributos resultaron en su mayoría temáticos y perceptivos, y para el de los seres vivos, mayormente perceptivos. Se concluye que el uso o preferencia por las relaciones conceptuales varía a lo largo del desarrollo, siendo las taxonómicas más inaccesibles para los niños y los adultos mayores, y menos preponderantes tanto en seres vivos como no vivos

The general aim of this paper was to study what types of conceptual relations are used by school-age children, young adults and old adults, since it is presumed that throughout development the preference for the types of conceptual relations varies, but studies on the subject are scarce, and their results are divergent. For this, 226 children aged 6 to 12 years, 300 adults aged 20 to 40, and 300 adults over 60, performed a feature production task of concepts from the living and the non-living domains. In this task, participants provided attributes from concepts such as "ant" and "pyramid". The attributes were coded according to whether they were taxonomic ("it is an animal"), perceptual ("it is long") or thematic ("it is found in Egypt"). The results from the analysis of variance indicate that the production of taxonomic attributes was significantly higher for young adults than for older adults and children, whose taxonomic production was even. In terms of thematic production, it was high and homogeneous in all three age groups. Finally, for the non-living things domain, the attributes were mostly thematic and perceptive, and for the living beings, mostly perceptive. It is argued that the use or preference for conceptual relations varies throughout development, with taxonomic relations being more inaccessible to children and older adults, and less prevalent for living and non-living things

Diferencias en la categorización de seres vivos y objetos Estudio en niños de edad escolar / Differences in the categorization of living and non-living things. Study in school-age children

Resumen Pese a la abundante evidencia de que los niños pueden categorizar perceptiva, temática y taxonómicamente, pocos estudios indagan si los patrones hallados en adultos -asociación de seres vivos con atributos taxonómicos y perceptivos, y de objetos con información temática- se encuentran también en población infantil. Por eso el objetivo del trabajo fue estudiar los tipos de atributos -principalmente taxonómicos y temáticos- utilizados por niños de 6 a 11 años de 1°, 3° y 5° año de educación primaria de Mar del Plata, mediante una tarea que consistió en solicitar características de conceptos de seres vivos y no vivos (ANIMALES, FRUTAS, OBJETOS y MUEBLES). Las relaciones temáticas predominaron en los OBJETOS y MUEBLES, y no en las FRUTAS y ANIMALES, en apoyo a la idea de que las características contextuales y funcionales son más importantes para reconocer y describir artefactos que seres vivos. Las relaciones taxonómicas primaron en los ANIMALES y FRUTAS, y no en los OBJETOS y MUEBLES, avalando la idea de que las relaciones taxonómicas, por su vinculación con el procesamiento visual, son más pertinentes para reconocer y categorizar seres vivos.

Abstract Although many studies show that children are able to perform perceptive, thematic and taxonomical characterization, few studies investigate whether adults' patterns -living things mostly associated with taxonomic and perceptive attributes, and nonliving things, with thematic information- resemble those of children. Thus, this paper undertook to study the types of -mainly taxonomic and thematic- attributes used by 6- to- 11-year-old children attending 1st, 3rd and 5th year of basic primary education in Mar del Plata city. This was done through a task that consisted of asking for conceptual attributes of living and nonliving things (ANIMALS, FRUITS, OBJECTS, FURNITURE). We found that thematic relations prevailed in OBJECTS and FURNITURE but not in FRUITS and ANIMALS, which matches with the idea that contextual and functional characteristics are more important for artifacts than living things. Likewise, taxonomic relations prevailed in ANIMALS and FRUITS, and its presence was much lower in OBJECTS and FURNITURE. In conclusion, we found a reverse pattern vis-à-vis that of thematic relations, in accordance with the idea that taxonomic relations are more relevant for living things given their relation to visual processing.

Desempeño en memoria de trabajo e indicadores comportamentales: Relaciones entre medidas directas e indirectas / Relationship between performance in working memory and behavioral indicators observed in class

La memoria de trabajo (MT) es un fuerte predictor del desempeño académico por su impacto en la comprensión lectora, la competencia aritmética y los comportamientos necesarios para el aprendizaje escolar. De modo que saber cómo opera la MT en niños de edad escolar y conocer la percepción que los docentes tienen sobre la MT de sus estudiantes es de gran interés. Por eso, los objetivos del trabajo que se informa fueron evaluar si las observaciones de los docentes sobre las dificultades en la MT de sus alumnos (medidas indirectas) se relacionan con el rendimiento de estos alumnos en pruebas de ejecución de MT (medidas directas) y analizar si estas dificultades percibidas por los docentes se corresponden con la presencia de problemas comportamentales de diversos tipos. Para esto se les administraron a niños de edad escolar pruebas de MT verbal y MT viso-espacial informatizadas, y a sus docentes dos cuestionarios, la Escala Observacional de Memoria de Trabajo -WMRS- y la Guía de Observación Comportamental -GOC-. Los resultados obtenidos muestran asociaciones significativas entre indicadores de fallos en MT y la performance de los niños en la tarea de MT verbal, debidas probablemente a que en los comportamientos explorados en la WMRS el componente verbal está más claramente reflejado (e.g., requiere repeticiones de instrucciones). También se encontró que estos fallos se relacionan con problemas comportamentales reportados por los docentes, como ser dificultades atencionales, hiperactividad y autoagresión. Se considera al estudio realizado como una contribución porque no hay escalas observacionales de MT para uso docente, disponibles en nuestro medio.

Working memory (WM) is a strong predictor of academic performance, due to its impact in reading comprehension, arithmetic's competence and the regulated behaviors required for school learning. Thus, knowing about WM operation in school-aged children and teachers' perception on their students WM is of great value and interest. This is why in the present work we assess whether teachers' reports about their students' WM (indirect measure) is associated with their performance in WM tasks (direct measure), and also to assess whether the difficulties perceived by the teachers correspond to the presence of students' general behavioral issues. For that, we administered computerized verbal WM tasks to school-aged children, in which they had to recall a number of digits (control condition) while saying out loud the color of the items (interference condition), and computerized visual-spatial WM tasks, in which they had to recall the locations of a series of stimuli (control condition) while indicating the color of the stimuli in a color palette (interference condition). We also administered two scales to their teachers: one of them asks about WM specifically (Working Memory Rating Scale) and is composed of 20 short descriptions of behavior problems that allow discriminating between children with poor and average WM skills. The teacher rates how typical a behavior is in each child, in a scale that goes from Not typical at all (0) to Very typical (3). The other asks about diverse behavioral problems (Guide of Behavioral Observation) and is composed of the following subscales: Physical and Verbal Aggression, Negativism, Transgression, Impulsivity, Hyperactivity, Attention Deficit and Acceptance. The teacher must choose the option that best describes the behavior in the child in terms of frequency (Never, Sometimesor Often). Our results show significant associations between children performance in the verbal WM task (direct measure) and WM failures' indicators (indirect measures), which can be explained by the fact that the verbal component is more clearly reflected in the behaviors explored in the Working Memory Rating Scale (e.g., loses his place in complicated activities, requires regular repetition of instructions, depends on neighbor to remind them of the current task). We also wanted to look out if there were associations between the WM skills reported by the teachers and the general behavior problems also reported by them, and we found associations between the reported WM difficulties and attention disorders, hyperactivity and self-aggression. This is consistent with the claim that WM and attention deficit in non clinical population are closely related. With respect to hyperactivity, its relation with WM is not as clear and has not been so frequently reported. With respect to self-aggression, its relation with WM difficulties can be attributed to these children's in ability to exercise control over the environment, which leads to frustration and low levels of motivation and self-esteem. Lastly, we found associations between children's performance in the computerized WM tasks and the presence of behavioral problems informed by the teachers. Specifically, proper performance in verbal WM tasks associates with less attention difficulties, where as proper performance in visual-spatial WM tasks associates with being accepted by the group. This last association could be attributed to the fact that many group games require several abilities that involve visual-spatial WM, such as the ability to orientate in space and recall different locations. To conclude, we consider that this work constitutes a contribution because, in the first place, there are no WM observation scales for teachers' use available in our environment, and, in the second place, it addresses the need for teachers to acknowledge WM difficulties and consequently be trained for the implementation of effective strategies to im prove WM skills in the classroom.

Categorías de análisis de los modelos mentales que construyen los psicólogos en formación en comunidades de aprendizaje y práctica profesional / Categories to analyse the mental models that the psychologists in training build in communities of learning and professional practice

El objetivo es desarrollar las categorías elaboradas para el análisis de los modelos mentales que construyen los estudiantes de Psicología de la Universidad de Buenos Aires, como psicólogos en formación, para resolver problemas situados en contextos de intervención profesional. Se articulan diferentes ejes, que atraviesan tensiones en cada una de las dimensiones de la unidad de análisis: a) situación problema, b) intervención profesional, c) herramientas utilizadas, d) resultados y atribución de causas. Se compara la información obtenida en un grupo de estudiantes, antes y después de la Práctica Profesional desarrollada en su formación de grado, con la obtenida en otro grupo de estudiantes, antes y después de cursar una materia del Ciclo de Formación Profesional. Se infiere, con relación a giros y modificaciones halladas, un efecto de desestructuración, reorganización y afirmación en los componentes de la unidad de análisis.