Costos médicos directos de enfermedades neumocócicas invasoras y neumonías con diagnóstico radiológico en niños chilenos / Direct medical costs of invasive pneumococcal disease and radiologically-diagnosed pneumonia among Chilean children

OBJETIVOS: Determinar los costos médicos directos relacionados con la atención sanitaria de los casos de enfermedades neumocócicas invasoras (ENI) y neumonías adquiridas en la comunidad confirmadas mediante radiología (NAC-Rx) en niños chilenos. MÉTODO: Estudio de seguimiento prospectivo de las prestaciones de salud entregadas a 594 niños de 0 a 35 meses con ENI y 1489 niños de 1 a 35 meses con NAC-Rx, diagnosticados y tratados en establecimientos de la red pública de salud de la Región Metropolitana de Chile. Las prestaciones se valoraron según las tarifas del Fondo Nacional de Salud (FONASA) y los precios de dos clínicas privadas. Se estimó la incidencia nacional anual de ENI y NAC-Rx para calcular la carga económica total nacional de la población afiliada al seguro de salud estatal. RESULTADOS: Los costos promedio de los casos que requirieron hospitalización fueron US$ 1056,20 para las ENI y US$ 594,80 para las NAC-Rx, mientras que para los casos tratados en forma ambulatoria fueron US$ 77,70 y US$ 65,20, respectivamente. Los precios por los mismos servicios de internación fueron US$ 4484,10 y US$ 2962,70 en una de las clínicas privadas y US$ 9967,50 y US$ 6578,40 en la otra. El costo anual nacional estimado de la atención de los niños menores de 5 años según las tarifas de FONASA fue de US$ 789045 para las ENI y US$ 13823289 para las NAC-Rx. CONCLUSIONES: La alta demanda asistencial y económica por NAC-Rx en niños de 0 a 3 años es una razón de salud pública tremendamente poderosa que apoya el uso sistemático de la vacunación antineumocócica en niños chilenos.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the direct medical costs of health care services for cases of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) and pneumonia acquired in the community and confirmed by radiology (NAC-Rx) among Chilean children. METHODS: A prospective follow-up study of the health services delivered to 594 children 0-35 months of age with IPD and 1 489 children 1-35 months with NAC-Rx, diagnosed and treated by organizations within public health network of the Región Metropolitana de Chile. The value of the health services was established according to rates supplied by the Fondo Nacional de Salud (FONASA, the National Health Fund) and prices charged by two private clinics. The national IPD and NAC-Rx rates were estimated to calculate the total national economic burden for the population covered by state health insurance. RESULTS: The mean cost of cases requiring hospitalization was US$ 1056.20 for IPD and US$ 594.80 for NAC-Rx, while that of cases treated by out-patient services was US$ 77.70 and US$ 65.20, respectively. The cost of the same services for in-patient care at the private clinics was US$ 4484.10 and US$ 2962.70 at one clinic and US$ 9967.50 and US$ 6578.40 at the other. The estimated national annual cost of services for children under 5 years of age, according to FONASA rates, was US$ 789045 for IPD and US$ 13823289 for NAC-Rx. CONCLUSION: The high demand for services and financial resources for NAC-Rx in children 0-3 years of age is a tremendously powerful public health reason to support the routine use of pneumococcal vaccination in Chilean children.

Vigilancia sistemática de virus influenza, respiratorio sincicial, parainfluenza y adenovirus en niños ambulatorios con infecciones respiratorias agudas / Systematic surveillance of influenza, syncytial respiratory, parainfluenza and adenovirus in ambulatory children with acute respiratory infections

Background: The efficacy of influenza vaccination programs depends on the antigenic similitude between vaccine and the influenza virus circulating in the community. Therefore the surveillance of clinical activity and antigenic features of influenza virus is of utmost importance. Aim: To perform a systematic surveillance of clinical activity and antigenic characteristics of influenza virus. Material and methods: Since 1996 and during the cold months (may to september), 20 samples of upper respiratory secretions per week, were obtained from children with acute respiratory infections consulting to the emergency room of a public hospital. Using indirect immunofluorescence and cellular cultures, the presence of influenza, syncytial respiratory, parainfluenza and adenovirus was assessed. The weekly number of consultations in the emergency room and the number of hospital discharges due to acute respiratory infections, were registered. Results: Influenza and syncytial respiratory were the predominant virus detected since 1996. In 1996 and 1998, the weekly detection of influenza virus followed a single seasonal curve. The maximal weekly positively results reached 85 and 80 percent of the obtained samples, respectively. During 1997, two curves of influenza virus activity were observed, but none reached more than 50 percent of weekly positive samples. The demand for outpatient care evolved in parallel to the weekly detection of influenza virus. The hospital discharges due to acute respiratory infections paralleled the syncytial respiratory virus detection rates. Conclusions: This surveillance model is effective for the detection of influenza and other virus responsible for acute respiratory infections and their relationship with the demand for health care during the cold months

Multirresistencia antimicrobiana en cepas de shigella sp en una comuna semi rural del área norte de Santiago / Antimicrobial multiresistance of shigella sp strains in a semi rural community of north Santiago

Appropriate antimicrobial therapy shortens the duration of Shigellosis and significantly reduces the risk of transmission. Shigella strains resistant to common antimicrobials have increased during the past years, determining the need for a periodic surveillance, to guide effective therapy. Aim: To report the results of a surveillance program in a rural community near Santiago (Colina), for Shigella infections. Material and methods: Between 1995 and 1997, stool samples from 3,534 episodes of diarrhoea, that occurred in Colina, were obtained. Two hundred twenty six Shigella strains were isolated and studied for susceptibility to ampicilin (AM), amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (AMC), cotrimoxazole (STX), chloramphenicol (CAF), tetracycline (TET), furazolidine (FU), ciprofloxacine (CIPR), nalidixic acid (AC NAL), gentamycin (GENT) and cefotaxime (CFTX). Results: Shigella flexnerii represented 134 of 226 Shigella strains isolated. All strains were susceptible to CIPR, AC NAL, GENT and CFTX. Yearly variation of resistance patterns to other antimicrobials were observed for these strains. Resistance to AM varied from 56 to 76 percent, to AMC from 25 to 56 percent, to STX from 21 to 47 percent, to CAF from 36 to 39 percent, to TET from 44 to 78 percent and to FU from 9 to 18 percent. Overall resistance was higher during 1997. All 85 strains of S sonnei were susceptible to CIPR, AC NAL and CFTX. Resistance throughout the years varied from 56 to 88 percent for AM, from 0 to 28 percent for AMC, from 44 to 53 percent for STX, from 11 to 40 percent for CAF, from 11 to 42 percent for TET and from 5 to 11 percent for FU. Overall resistance was also higher during 1997, except for AM and STX. Seven S boydii strains were isolated, only during 1995. All seven were resistant to AM and TET and none were resistant to FU, CIPR, AC NAL and CFTX. One strain was resistant to AMC, STX and CAF. Conclusions: Antimicrobial resistance patterns of Shigella sp isolated in Colina have increased from 1995 to 1997, specially for commonly used antimicrobials. Resistance remains low for furazolidine and all strains remain susceptible to quinolones

Variación temporal de genotipos y serogrupos de E coli enterohemorrágicos aislados en niños chilenos con infecciones intestinales o síndrome hemolítico urémico / Temporal variation of genotypes and serogroups of enterohemorrhagic E coli isolated from chilean children with intestinal infections or hemolytic-uremic syndrome

Thirty six strains isolated from chilean children with hemolytic-uremic syndrome (8 obtained in 1988-1989, 15 obtained in 1990-1993 and 13 obtained in 1995-1996), 33 strains from asymptomatic children, obtained in similar periods and 30 strains from children with bloody diarrhea, obtained in 1995-1996 were studied. Virulence factors were investigated with a colony hybridization technique using probes that identify virulence genes. Serotypes were identified with commercial antisera. Both SLTI and SLTII genes predominated in strains obtained from children with hemolytic uremic syndrome in 1988-1989 and 1995-1996 and SLTI gene predominated in strains obtained in 1990-1993. Similar temporal variations in virulence genes of strains obtained from asymptomatic children were observed. SLTI/SLTII pattern predominated in strains obtained from children bloody diarrhea and the frequency of 0157 serogroup was lower, compared to strains obtained from children with hemolytic uremic syndrome. There was a temporal variation in toxigenic genotypes of enterohemorrhagic E coli strains, but no association between these genotypes and the risk for hemolitic uremic syndrome was observed

Rendimiento comparativo de diferentes esquemas de trabajo para aislamiento de enteropatógenos en coprocultivo / Comparative yield of diverse plans for the isolation of enteropathogenes in stool cultures

La diarrea aguda es causa frecuente de consulta en niños menores de 2 años; de acuerdo a nuestra experiencia es posible identificar uno omás agentes bacterianos en el 50-70 por ciento de los casos. En estudios epidemiológicos y en determinados pacientes, es importante poder identificar él o los agentes causales y para ello es necesario seguir la metodología más eficiente. El objetivo de este trabajo fue comparar el rendimiento de 2 estrategias: siembra directa de deposición en medios selectivos versus enriquecimiento previo en calcio GN y posterior cultivo en medios selectivos.Como otro objetivo nos planteamos analizar la eficiencia de diferentes medios selectivos para aislamiento de Shigella. Para comparar ambos flujos de trabajos se estudiaron 1.869 muestras de deposiciones provenientes de un estudio etiológico de diarrea aguda. Se realizó siembra directa en agar MC, XLD, SS y HE, versus enriquecimiento en caldo GN, por 18 horas a 37ºC y resiembra posterior en los mismos medios. Para el aislamiento de Shigella se estudiaron 15.950 muestras de deposición, provenientes de un estudio de vigilancia activa de Shigella, que se sembraron en los mismos 4 medios selectivos. Rendimiento de ambos flujos: se aislaron 33 cepas de Shigella sp y 10 cepas de Salmonella sp, de las cuales 32 cepas de Shigella (97 por ciento), se recuperaron de la siembra directa y 13 (39,4 por ciento), mediante enriquecimiento previo en caldo GN, diferencia significativa, p < 0,00001. El rendimiento para Salmonella resultó similar por ambas metodologías. En relación a los medios selectivos para recuperación de Shigella, utilizando más de 1 medio el rendimiento aumenta en forma significativa (de 38,3 por ciento a 61,7 por ciento) p < 0,000001. De los medios analizados, el mejor rendimento se observó con XLD (16 por ciento) y SS (15,5 por ciento). En conclusión, no recomendamos el enriquecimiento previo en caldo GN, tiene menor rendimiento para aislamiento de Salmonella y Shigella, encarece el procedimiento y demora los resultados

Susceptibilidad in vitro de escherichia coli enterohemorrágicas frente a 11 antimicrobianos: relación entre resistencia antibiótica y genotipos toxigénicos / In vitro susceptibility of enterohemorrhagic escherichia coli to 11 antimicrobials: relation between antibiotical resistance and toxicogenic genotypes

Enterohemorrhagic escherichia coli (EHEC) has been recognized as the main etiologic agent of hemorrhagic colitis and hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS). The usefulness of antibiotic treatment in patients with EHRC infections is a matter of current debate. Knowledge on EHEC antimicrobial susceptibility patterns in different geographic areas is important for both treatment considerations and for strain characterization. We studied by diffusion disk agar technique the antibiotic susceptibility of 83 EHEC strains obtained from stools of patients with HUS or diarrhea. Eleven antimicrobials were tested (ampicillin, cotrimoxazole, tetracycline, chloramphenicol, furazolidone, gentamycin, amikacin, ciprofloxacin, erythromycin, vancomycin and metronidazol). Resistant strains by disk diffusion were tested for MIC (mg/ml) by agar dilution. SLT-I and SLT-II were detected with specific biotinylated gene probes. All 83 strains were susceptible to furazolidone, ciprofloxacin, gentamycin and amikacin. Resistance was detected to tetracycline 4 percent, chloramphenicol 5 percent, cotrimoxazole 24 percent and ampicillin 25 percent. As expected for EHEC strains all were resistant to erythromycin, vancomycin and metronidazol. Resistant strains were significantly more common in non toxigenic and SLT-I producing strains (p=0.01). Resistant strains were similarly distributed among patients who had diarrhea only and those who developed HUS (p=0.3). In Chile, resistant EHEC strains seem to be more common and of different genotypes than those reported in more developed countries. Regional differences of EHEC antibiotic susceptibility patterns indicate a need for continious monitoring, specially if antibiotic prove to be useful in disease prevention

Escherichia coli enterohemorrágica en el síndrome hemolítico urémico, en niños chilenos: evaluación de diferentes técnicas de diagnóstico de infección / Enterohemorrhagic escherichia coli in hemolytic uremic syndrome, in chilean children: evaluation of different technics of infection diagnosis

Enterohemorrhagic escherichia coli (EHEC), have been associated with pathogenesis of hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) worldwide. Our aim was to determine the association of EHEC ing¿fection and HUS in chilean children. During may 1991 and october 1993, 34 children HUS and 33 age matched controls (children with diarrhea that did not develop HUS) were enrolled in a case/control study. For each child a stool and serum sample were obtained at admission. Stools were processed for common enteropathogen and for EHEC identification. EHEC were identified in stools by gene probes for different virulence factors (EHEC plasmid-associated fimbria, Shiga-like toxin I, Shiga-like toxin II and eae adherence factor) and by detection of free fecal toxin by neutralization assay in Vero cells. Sera were processed for anti-cytotoxin antibodies also by an assay in Vero cells. Enteropathogens were isolated in 20.6 percent and 15.5 percent of HUS and control children respectively (p=NS). 91 percent of the HUS children and 73 percent of the control children were EHEC positive by one or more of the techniques used (p=0.05). Of the 3 detection methods used for EHEC, only free fecal cytotoxin was significantly more common in HUS children than controls (45.5 percent vs 9 percent p=0.007). Genotype patterns of HUS and controls strains were similar except for a trend towards a higher frequency of non-toxigenic strains in the control group. Serogroup 0157 was more common in HUS children than in controls (9 percent vs 0 percent p=0.036). In Chile as in other countries, EHEC infection is common and significantly associated with occurrence of HUS. Infection with EHEC strains 0157 seems to be important risk factor for HUS

Perfil clínico y microbiológico de las infecciones entéricas por Yersinia entero colitica en niños de Santiago, Chile / Clinical and microbiological aspects of Yersinia enterocolitica enteric infections in children from Santiago, Chile

Yersinia enterocolitica es causa frecuente de infecciones intestinales endémicas en países de Europa y Norteamérica, pero la información sobre ella en Iberoamérica es escasa. El propósito de este estudio fue describir la incidencia y características clínicas de infecciones intestinales por Y. enterocolitica en 3 cohortes de niños menores de 4 años de familias de bajos recursos de Santiago. Los niños fueron vigilados activamente con visitas domiciliarias dos veces por semana, se les tomaron muestras de deposiciones en cada episodio de diarrea, como también a controles pareados por edad y sexo. Entre febrero 1987 y enero 1990 se estudiaron 1.795 episodios de diarrea. La incidencia de Y. enterocolitica en los casos de diarrea fue de 1,4% versus 0,3% en 1.780 controles (p<0,005). La diarrea asociada a Y. enterocolitica se caracterizó por deposiciones líquidas o mucosas; en ningún caso hubo síndrome disentérico, pero 11,5% evolucionaron como diarrea persistente (> 14 días); en 26,9% de los pacientes se observó fiebre (* 38-C) y ninguno requirió hospitalización. De las cepas de Yersinia aisladas, 73% correspondieron a serotipo 0:3, biotipo 4, y las restantes a los serotipos 0:7,8, 0:10 y 0:6. No se apreciaron claras diferencias estacionales, pero 50% de los aislamientos se concentraron en los meses fríos de junio, julio, agosto, septiembre. Si bien la incidencia de Y. enterocolitica en diarrea aguda infantil es baja, es importante buscarla en forma sistemática y con medios selectivos en niños menores de 2 años, considerando que puede provocar enfermedad de curso prolongado

Implementación de sondas genéticas biotiniladas para la identificación de E. coli diarreogénico en niños con diarrea / Implementation of biotinilates genetic probes for identification of E. coli diarreogenic in children with diarrhea

Escherichia coli constituye el agente etiológico más importante de la diarrea aguda infantil en los países en vías de desarrollo. Para la identificación de las distintas categorías y determinación de su importancia relativa en grandes poblaciones se ha requerido de técnicas sofisticadas y engorrosas. Como una respuesta a la necesidad de contar con una técnica de alta sensibilidad y especificidad, que no requiere de instalaciones costosas, ni un tiempo largo de procesamiento, se han desarrollado las sondas genéticas, como un aporte más del avance en la tecnología del ADN recombinante. De gran importancia fue poder reemplazar el uso de radioisótopos por sistemas de marca más simples y fáciles de manipular, como la biotina. Nuestro interés fue dar a conocer la experiencia de la implementación de esta tecnología en la identificación de las diversas categorías de E. coli diarreogénico en muestras de deposiciones de niños con diarrea y controles sanos, comoparte de un estudio de campo de la diarrea aguda. Demostrándose que es posible desarrollar esta tecnología en Chile y que los resultados obtenidos constituyen un aporte al conocimiento de la epidemiología de E. coli diarreogénico

Vacunas en perspectiva contra los agentes etiológicos de las diarreas / Outlook vaccines against etiologic agents of diarrhea

Se ha identificado en gran parte a los agentes etiológicos de la diarrea infantil y se preparan, por métodos modernos de biotecnología, vacunas potenciales contra los más importantes (rotavirus, E. coli enterotoxígena y Shigella). La mayor parte de esas vacunas potenciales se administran por vía oral, que es preferible por estimular una inmunidad localizada en el intestino. Para combatir la diarrea endémica y epidémica y la fiebre entérica, esas vacunas deben distinguirse por su buena tolerancia, elevada eficacia, costo reducido y resultado práctico y ha de haber posibilidades óptimas de administrarlas mediante programas ampliados de inmunización. Ya es posible, e incluso inminente, el logro de vacunas específicas que mitiguen la gravedad de la diarrea infantil y la consiguiente mortalidad. Esas vacunas serán una nueva arma en la batalla contra las infecciones entéricas