Post hoc analysis of X[2] data

It is advisable to go beyond the overall consequence estimate in under to pinpoint both within and without differences. Karl Pearson [1900] introduced the chi-square [X[2]] statistic. X[2] is a frequency-based statistic. It serves two purposes: [i] it tests whether or not a significant difference exists between observed number of cases and expected number of cases specified by the null hypothesis, and [ii] it tests whether or not there is an association between two or more variables. In both cases the same X[2] formula [N-ARY Summation] [fo-fe] [2]/fe is used, and researcher gets an overall estimate in both cases. ANOVA [F] yields an overall estimate of sample means. Provided F is significant, attempt is made to pinpoint which pair AB, AC, or BC, differs, and -which does not differ between themselves and within themselves. Such an attempt is called post hoc analysis. Scheffe [1953] and Tukey [1953] statistics are widely used post hoc statistics. Unlike F, authors of text books especially designed for behavioral sciences as well as researchers have not gone beyond the overall result of X[2] test. We, here, attempt to use X[2] for two more possible points of difference i.e., within difference and between difference. Illustrative examples are given below both for the measure of goodness of fit and for the measure of association between variables

Effects of physical attractiveness and sex on length of imprisonment: a study of sex differences

In an attempt to determine what length of imprisonment men and women like to suggest for physically attractive male and female heroin sellers and for physically unattractive male and female heroin sellers also, it was found that [i] attractiveness of a sex received favor from the opposite sex, [ii] women, either attractive or unattractive, had effect on men, [iii] women suggested longer imprisonment for a heroin seller, regardless of both the sex and the physical attractiveness of the heroin seller, and [iv] unattractiveness is a disadvantage in all situations

Effect of cash and credit on the speed of verbal learning: a trend analysis

In an attempt to determine the cash and credit group's trend of the average speed of learning a verbal task up to three trials, it was found that the trend was upward and without significant curvature. Both humans and animals seek satisfaction and shun dissatisfaction. They improve or change their behavior and attitude towards satisfaction. This has been explained under different names by different researchers. Thorndike [1898] has explained it in terms of effects of behavior, freud [1933] in terms of pleasure principle of behavior, Skinner [1938] in terms of reinforcement of behavior, Kornhouser [1939] in terms of attitude of people, Thibaut and Kelley [1959] in terms of outcomes of behavior and Homans [1961] in terms of payoffs or profits of behavior. They all agree that consequence of behavior affects subsequent behavior. Although the present experiment falls under the category of reinforcement schedule- immediate and delayed reinforcements, it is not basically concerned with determining the differential effects of reinforcement schedules on the speed of verbal learning. It is concerned with making a trend analysis of the average speed of verbal learning up to three trials under cash and credit payment schedules

Effect of language similarity between the experimenter and the subject on the speed of verbal learning

In an attempt to determine the effect of language similarity between the experimenter and the subject on the speed of verbal learning it was found that the speed of verbal learning was significantly enhanced when the experimenter spoke in regional language [Punjabi] to Punjabi subject than when the experimenter spoke in nonregional language [English]. Similarity as a determinant of interpersonal attraction and attachment occupies a prominent place in modern social psychology. Degree of perceiving others as similar to one's own self is the basis of interpersonal relation as well as international relations. Greater the perceived similarity better the interpersonal/ international relation. Researches on various dimensions of similarity, viz, attitudinal economic, choice of a brand of an item of purchase, ability, and race and belief led to conclude that [i] we avoid those who differ and prefer those who have attitudes similar to those of ours [Byrne 1971, Heider 1958] even under what might seem to be unfavourable conditions [Bleda 1974], [ii] we like those who hold economic position similar to us [Byrne, et al 1966], [iii] we change our decision in the direction of one who appears to be a customer similar to us [Brock 1965]. [iv] we like those who are equally competent in doing a task [Senn 1971] and [v] we are intimate with those who are similar in race and belief [Triandis and Davis 1965]. A mong the many dimensions of similarity, language is one of them. A man who appears to belonging to the same speech community is generally considered a similar man. This is true in case of Pakistan as well. Punjabi is one of the regional languages of Pakistan. A man who speaks or converses in Punjabi to Punjabi man is generally considered a similar man. So is the case with other regional languages of Pakistan. since researches show that perceived similarity of a man leads another man to accept his views or suggestions, a question arises whether the perceived similarity of the experimenter leads the subject take the learning task better. As such, the present paper is an attempt to determine the effect of language similarity between the experimenter and the subject on the speed of verbal learning

Log-linear model in psychological data analysis

A log-linear model, a procedure already discussed by statisticians has often been ignored by researchers in behavioural sciences. According to log linear model the logarithm of the average frequency in the entire population +/- can be expressed as: log linear model the logarithm of the average frequency in the entire population x can be expressed as: LogX = [A B][ij]+ [A][i] + [B][i] + [Over all Effect]. LogX = [A B][ij][12] + [A][i][1] + [B][i][2] + [A B][0] The analysis of a 2-way contingency table requiring the testing of interaction parameter [A B][ij][12] becomes informative if the log-linear model is used

Audience effect and coaction effect on the speed of vocabulary writing

In an attempt to make a comparative study of English vocabulary writing speed before passive audience and coacting audience, it was found that speed of English vocabulary writing of female students was better in coaction situation than before passive audience. Although an individual engaged in a task is not all the time conscious of the influence of the physical presence of his fellow beings his behaviour changes as a result of being present with them. Not only the sheer physical presence the psychological presence of others also affects his behaviour [Khalique 1982]. Allport [1920] conducted the first laboratory experiment on interindividual influence and found facilitating effect of the physical presence of individuals acting as passive spectators on an individual occupied with a verbal task. He obtained a clear facilitation effect and termed it as social facilitation. Since then it applies to both effects: facilitating effect and interfering effect. The facilitating effects of the physical presence of others have been recorded in situation where an individual is engaged in a well-mastered task before others [Triplett 1897, Allport 1920 and 1924 Travis 1925, Dashiell 1930], and interfering effect has been found in situation where an individual is engaged in an new task before others [Husband 1931, Pessin and Husband 1933, Pessin 1933, Innes and Sambrooks 1969 Fouts and Jordon 1973], Two hypotheses have been advanced in order to explain the human behaviour in presence of other human beings. Zajonc's [1965] arousal hypothesis states that the sheer physical presence of fellow beings increases the level of drive in the task doer, consequently, his performance of well-mastcred responses is facilitated and acquisition of new responses is impaired by their presence.Cottrell's [1968] evaluation apprehension hypothesis states that an individual does his task better because he has apprehension over being evaluated by others present around him. A third explanation is in way. Khalique [1981] reported " social facilitation or social interference depends neither upon the new task nor the well learned task but upon the personality characteristics of the task doer". For convenience of understanding and conducting rsearches Zajonc [1965] has calssified the literature on social facilitation into two categories: [i] audience effects-which refer to the study of behaviour occurring in the physical presence of passive audience, and [ii] coaction effects which refer to the study of behaviour occurring in the physical presence of fellow beings who are also engaged in the same activity. The present research attempts to make a comparative study of the influence of persons passively present at the time an individual is writing words and the influence of the same persons actively engaged in the task [the individual is also performing] on the speed of vocabulary writing of the individual

Bureaucratic orientation and dehumanization

In order to determine whether men with high and low bureaucratic orientations differ in respect of their dehumanc attitude! towards men below their status, it was founo that the two groups significantly differed and there was a significant positive relationship between the two personality constructsbureaucratic orientation and dehumanization