Strengthening Production End Salt Iodization: Computerized Management Information System in Salt Department, India.

Objectives: This paper presents the implementation of computerized Management Information System (MIS) in Salt Department, the nodal agency in India for regulation and control of manufacturer, supply and distribution of iodized salt, to strengthen production end salt iodization. Methods: The MIS was launched in March 2012 with the joint action of Salt Department and the non-governmental development agencies GAIN, MI, UNICEF, and ICCIDD through the platform of National Coalition for Sustained Optimal Iodine Intake. Web based MIS was installed in all offices of the Salt Department with its data centre located in salt Department Headquarter in Jaipur. The Salt MIS has modules on distribution and supply of salt, salt quality management, salt testing laboratories, and other functionalities of Salt Department. In the second phase, trainings of personnel from Salt Department were conducted for mainstreaming the use of MIS. Results: 81% of the 203 identified personnel were trained in MIS. All 104 factory offices and 30 out of 91% of 33 laboratories started using MIS for monthly reports. Real time information is available on production figures, quality of iodized salt and movement of iodized salt. Linking information to decision making process facilitated regulatory actions in salt producing pockets. Conclusions: Successful implementation of MIS in the Salt Department through the coordinated efforts of partner agencies resulted in improved functioning of Salt Department. Effective monitoring of iodized salt production, movement and distribution resulted in strengthening of production end salt iodization and improved access to quality iodized salt to consumers.

Teaching community medicine to medical undergraduates—learning by doing: Our experience of rural posting at All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India.

Background. The goal of medical education is to ensure that the medical graduate has acquired broad public health competencies needed to solve the health problems of the community. We present the current teaching of community medicine to medical students of the All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), New Delhi during their 5-week posting at the rural centre at Ballabgarh, Haryana. Methods. The teaching activities consist of field visits to different levels of health facilities and meeting with health workers, epidemiological exercises, a community-based exercise, posting in inpatient and outpatient departments of a secondary hospital, and domiciliary visits to families of patients. These are spread over 80 sessions of about 200 hours. There is very little didactic teaching and the assessment is broad-based. The evaluation of the posting was based on comparison of blinded pre- and post-posting assessments as well as anonymous feedback of the posting by the students. Results. There was a significant increase in the mean scores of all components of the posting—epidemiology (5.1 to 8.4), health systems (6.8 to 9.3) and clinical (8.0 to 10.8). The posting did not result in a better understanding of a public health approach as compared to a clinical approach. The feedback provided by students was generally positive for all activities with 94% of them rating it as good or very good. Conclusion. The teaching of community medicine can be made more practical and interesting without compromising on learning. However, despite such a programme, getting medical students to develop a public health approach is a daunting task.

Introducing regular behavioural surveillance into the health system in India: Its feasibility and validity.

Background. Illness is affected by human behaviour. However, in most developing countries the risk behaviour of the general population is not assessed. We developed a surveillance system to assess the ‘risk factors’ at the community level using the routine healthcare system. Methods. The Comprehensive Rural Health Services Project at Ballabgarh, Haryana, provides healthcare to a population of 82 933 through 2 primary health centres and 24 health workers. Information on behavioural risk factors for communicable and non-communicable diseases was collected by health workers during the annual health census from December 2003 to February 2004. The information collected pertained to maternal and child health, and household and individual behaviour. We compared the data related to individual behaviour with that of a survey of non-communicable diseases risk factors done in the same area. Results. Data were collected from (i) mothers who had delivered during the preceding year (n=1625), (ii) a random sample of individuals (n=2865), (iii) and all households (n=7488). The response rate was 85% for mothers, 91% for households and 95% for individuals. Approximately 80% of the households had access to drinking water, 32% to sanitary latrines, 28% of women increased their dietary intake during pregnancy, and 50% of adult men used tobacco. Comparing these results with those from the survey of risk factors for non-communicable diseases revealed no significant differences. Conclusion. It is feasible for health workers to do behavioural surveillance by using the routine healthcare system.

Intensified pulse polio immunization: Time spent and cost incurred at a primary healthcare centre.

Background. Despite launching the polio eradication initiative in 1995, India is among the world’s largest reservoir of wild poliovirus with 559 cases of poliomyelitis reported in 2008. This continued failure has been criticised for its negative impact on routine healthcare delivery. We assessed the impact of the pulse polio immunization programme at the primary health level in terms of services, time and cost. Methods. All activities during a single round of intensified pulse polio immunization were modelled on actual requirements at the primary health centre at Dayalpur in Haryana. Total person-hours and cost per child vaccinated at the primary health centre were computed. Results. Almost all routine healthcare services at the primary health centre were suspended during the round. Total person-hours consumed were 4446 and the total direct cost was Rs 24.2 per child vaccinated during a single round of the intensified pulse polio immunization programme. Conclusion. A single round of intensified pulse polio immunization consumes a substantial number of person-hours and leads to a temporary suspension of routine services provided at the primary health centre. This should be factored in while planning any future strategy of polio eradication or control and suggests the need to re-think the ‘intensified pulse polio strategy’.

Public health strategies to stem the tide of chronic kidney disease in India.

It is estimated that 10-15% of the population has chronic kidney disease (CKD), resulting in significant health expenditure, which is largely met by out-of-pocket by the patient in India. However, the seriousness of this public health problem has remained largely under-recognized so far. Luckily the preventive measures are simple and not difficult to implement. Public health strategies are essential to control the burgeoning problem. Lifestyle modifications can reduce the incidence of obesity, hypertension and diabetes. These diseases account for a significant proportion of CKD cases. Active involvement of the primary care physicians is vital for early detection of CKD with retardation of its progress, since nephrologists do not see the patients in the early stages. The role of community health specialists is essential to organize health education programs and screening camps, form active patient support groups; and incorporate the prevention program in the various tiers of the health-care system. Availability of optimal nephrology services in peripheral hospitals can rehabilitate most cases of end-stage renal disease, and also prevent the illegal organ trade, which keeps rearing its ugly head at regular intervals in India.

Tracking progress towards sustainable elimination of iodine deficiency disorders in Orissa.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the status of iodine deficiency in the population of Orissa and track progress of the elimination efforts. METHODS: A community based field survey was conducted. Data was collected using quantitative and qualitative research methods. Standard internationally recommended protocol and methodology was followed. Thirty clusters were selected using population proportionate to size sampling technique. School children aged 6 to 12 years were selected as target group. Goiter prevalence, urinary iodine excretion in the target group and iodine content of the salt at household were used as outcome variables. RESULTS: A total of 1200 children were studied. The total goiter rate was found to be 8.0%, of which 7.6% were grade I and 0.4% was grade-II goiter. The median urinary iodine excretion was found to be 85.4 microg/L and 32.2% of the subjects had urinary iodine levels less than 50 microg/L. Estimation of iodine content by titration method revealed that in only 45% of households salt was found to be adequately iodised. (Salt with iodine level 15 ppm). CONCLUSION: Iodine deficiency continues to be a public health problem in Orissa and the need to accelerate efforts to iodine sufficiency cannot be overemphasized.

Tracking progress towards sustainable elimination of iodine deficiency disorders in Bihar.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the status of the iodine deficiency in the population of Bihar and track progress of the elimination efforts. METHODS: A community based field survey was conducted. Using quantitative and qualitative research methods, data was collected by following internationally recommended protocol and methodology. Thirty clusters were selected using population proportionate to size technique. School age children (6 to 12 years) were the target group studied. Urinary iodine in target children and iodine content of salt at households were the indicators used. RESULTS: Total of 1169 children were studied. The median urinary iodine concentration was found to be 85.6 microg/L. Urinary iodine concentration was less than 50 microg/L in 31.5% of the subjects. Only 40.1% of the household salt samples were found to be adequately iodised as determined by titration method (> or =15 ppm iodine). CONCLUSIONS: Study results show existence of iodine deficiency in the state. There is need to accelerate our efforts to achieve iodine sufficiency and this should be done on a war-footing.

Out-of-pocket expenditure on healthcare in a north Indian village.

BACKGROUND: Information on healthcare expenditure at the family or household level is important for the planning and management of health services. It is particularly relevant for health insurance agencies to estimate the amount of premium for initiating a universal health insurance system. METHODS: Of 800 families in a village, 160 were selected by systematic random sampling. Of these, 156 families were followed up for a period of 12 months (September 1998 to August 1999) by making monthly visits. Responses from each family, as given by the head of the family, were recorded with the help of an interview schedule administered in the local language. The interview schedule covered any morbidity among the family members in the past one month and the out-of-pocket expenditure incurred on the same. RESULTS: The private health sector was utilized in 59.4% of total episodes. Utilization of the private sector was directly associated with a higher socioeconomic status (p = 0.002). Of the total expenditure on non-hospitalized cases, 83.6% was incurred in the private sector. The mean per capita annual out-of-pocket expenditure on health was Rs 131. The median expenditure per episode was Rs 15. CONCLUSION: Our study shows that out-of-pocket expenditure is more than the government expenditure on health. There is a need for systems such as health insurance to protect the poor from high medical costs.

Consensus and conflicts in health sector reforms in India: a Delphi study.

BACKGROUND: Health sector reforms have generated much debate in India, especially in the context of economic liberalization. The World Bank intensified this debate in 1993 when it tried to redefine the role of the public and private sectors in healthcare. The Government of India has recently announced the National Health Policy. We are not aware of any formal exercise by which a consensus has been reached or conflicts in the issues related to health policy have been assessed. We present the results of such an exercise conducted in the format of a Delphi study. METHODS: Based on a review of the current literature, a 9-domain, 56-item questionnaire was prepared. This was sent to a panel of 132 respondents with diverse backgrounds, from the grassroots workers to policymakers by surface or electronic mall. They were asked to identify the three top priorities and to give their degree of agreement to the statements. The results of the first round were analysed and sent back to the respondents for reconsideration. Consensus was defined as the presence of > or = 75% of the respondents in agreement whereas conflict was said to be present if > 35% of the respondents were on either side of the divide. During the subsequent round, the respondents were also asked to give three suggestions on how to approach the previously identified top three priorities. RESULTS: Half (66) of the original list of panelists replied to the questionnaire. The three priorities identified and later ratified were: improving the quality of care of the primary healthcare system, improvements in medical education and setting up a disease surveillance system. Other areas of consensus identified were: setting up a formal channel of interaction with the private health sector, instituting cost recovery systems in the government sector, setting up a technology assessment commission and bringing accountability into the system. Conflicts were in continuation of subsidy in medical education, the role of and need for health insurance and the role of health professionals vis-a-vis Panchayati Raj institutions. CONCLUSION: We have demonstrated, on a small scale, the feasibility of assessing consensus on a wide range of issues. The approach is replicable, cost-effective and ensures that the scope of involvement is widened. Also, there is likely to be a greater feeling of self-involvement in the decisions made which would therefore meet with less resistance from the system during implementation.

Ethical issues in public health policy.

Ethics in public health policy is given the least importance and rarely discussed. Resolving ethical issues in public health is often an arduous task as these are complicated and require careful handling. Using four case studies, we discuss issues pertaining to pertussis and brain damage, water fluoridation and dental caries, infection with the human immunodeficiency virus and the right to marriage, and the debate surrounding universal salt iodization. The core issue in all these examples pertains to the relevance of ethics in public health policy.

Injection use in a village in north India.

BACKGROUND: Injections can transmit infections such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV), and precipitate poliomyelitis. Complications such as injection abscesses and nerve damage may also occur. It is estimated that 50% of the injections given in developing countries are unsafe. However, limited information is available from India. We planned a pilot study to assess the prevalence of injection use and the knowledge of the community and private medical practitioners (PMPs) about injection use. METHODS: One in every four houses in the village under study was selected by systematic random sampling. One adult (> 18 years) respondent in the family was asked questions about family members receiving injections in the past 6 months. Nine PMPs were interviewed about their knowledge and practices regarding injection use. RESULTS: In the past six months, 1280 family members in 285 houses received 1575 injections (2.46 injections per person per year). About 35% had received at least one injection in the past 6 months. Children below 5 years received 3.1 injections/child/year of which about 60% were preventive. On their last visit to a health facility, 55% of the subjects were given injections using disposable syringes. About 45% of the 285 respondents knew that diseases could be spread by improper use of injections. While 18% of the respondents said they would prefer injections, 54% preferred oral medications if both were equally effective. After being told the average cost of disposable needles and syringes, 92% of the respondents were willing to buy them. None of the 9 PMPs practising in the village were formally trained in modern medicine. On the day of observation, 18 of 58 patients (30%) seen by PMPs were given injections. Three injections were observed and though they were all given with disposable syringes, the technique of administration did not follow standard guidelines in any. Two PMPs did not know of any disease transmitted by injections. The syringes were usually thrown in a nearby drain or outside the village. Four PMPs said that patients themselves did not ask for injections. CONCLUSION: The use of injections in the study area was high. The PMPs were not only giving a high number of injections but the technique of administration was also wrong. The community was less likely to ask for injections on their own but was willing to buy disposable syringes and needles. The awareness about the risk of injections was low.

Radioiodine kinetics and thyroid function following the universal salt iodization policy.

BACKGROUND: Universal salt iodization was introduced in Delhi in 1989. The present study quantifies the change in iodine kinetics as a result of this. The previous values were reported 10-30 years earlier, when Delhi was iodine deficient. METHODS: Thirty subjects (18 men and 12 women, 17-48 years of age) who were residents of Delhi and had no thyroid disorder, were recruited from our outpatient clinic in 1999. The 24-hour urinary excretion of iodine and the iodine content of salt consumed at home by these subjects were estimated. Kinetic studies of iodine using radiotracer 131I were done to determine thyroid iodine clearance, renal iodine clearance, percentage uptake and absolute iodine uptake by the thyroid gland, and plasma inorganic iodine. RESULTS: The median 24-hour urinary iodine excretion was 341.3 micrograms. The mean (SD) thyroid uptake of radioactive iodine was 4.9 (2.3)% at 2 hours and 19.1 (8.0)% at 24 hours. The median calculated plasma inorganic iodine was 1.36 micrograms/dl, absolute iodine intake 6.5 micrograms/hour and thyroid iodine clearance was 4.8 ml/minute (geometric means 1.68 micrograms/dl, 8.5 micrograms/hour and 8.1 ml/minute, respectively). The serum thyroid hormones and thyroid stimulating hormone were within normal limits. CONCLUSION: Compared to the values reported 10-30 years ago when the population was iodine deficient, the present urinary iodine excretion, plasma inorganic iodine and absolute iodine intake have increased, while the percentage thyroid uptake of iodine ingested and thyroid clearance have decreased. The lack of change in the serum thyroid hormone levels after 10 years of universal salt iodization indicates that iodine consumption has had no adverse effect on thyroid function in these normal individuals. These changes are consistent with the increase in iodine consumption. Since the iodine ingestion in a community may change with time, assessment of iodine kinetics should be done periodically in different regions of the country.