Evidências de Validade do Teste Informatizado para Avaliação das Funções Executivas / Evidence of Validity of the Computerized Test for Evaluating Executive Functions / Evidencia de Validez de la Prueba Computarizada para Evaluación de Funciones Ejecutivas

Resumo Funções executivas (FE) referem-se ao conjunto de habilidades que, de forma integrada, coordenam o comportamento e a cognição. Assim, o comprometimento no desenvolvimento das FE está ligado a vários desfechos negativos ao longo da vida. Portanto, a avaliação dessas habilidades na infância é essencial para identificar e prevenir prejuízos na vida adulta. Este estudo teve como objetivo investigar evidências de validade do Teste Informatizado para Avaliação das Funções Executivas (Tafe) pelo critério de idade e pelo padrão de correlação entre medidas do TAFE e outras medidas de FE. Para isso, foi utilizada uma amostra de 51 crianças, entre 4 e 10 anos de idade, matriculadas em uma escola privada na cidade de Goiânia (GO), da pré-escola ao 4º ano do ensino fundamental. Como instrumentos, foram utilizados, além do Tafe, as tarefas de Bloco de Corsi, Teste de Trilhas A e B, Teste de Trilhas Pré-Escolares, Teste de Stroop Pré-Escolares e Subteste Dígitos da Escala Wechsler de Inteligência. Foram conduzidas análises estatísticas Kruskal Wallis para verificar a evidência de validade por relação com idade e análises de correlação não paramétrica de Spearman para avaliar as evidências de validade convergente. O instrumento investigado mostrou-se efetivo para discriminar entre as diferentes faixas etárias, assim, sensível ao desenvolvimento das FE. Os resultados obtidos no Tafe correlacionaram-se aos obtidos em outros testes que também avaliaram FE, mostrando claros padrões de convergência. Logo, as análises dos resultados fornecem evidências de validade ao Tafe, derivadas a partir de diferentes estratégias de investigação.

Abstract Executive functions (EF) refer to the set of skills that, in an integrated way, coordinate behavior and cognition. Thus, the commitment in developing EF is linked to several negative outcomes throughout life. Therefore, the assessment of these abilities in childhood is essential to identify and prevent possible harm in adult life. This study aimed to investigate evidences of validity of the Computerized Test for Evaluation of Executive Functions (TAFE) by the age criterion and by the pattern of correlation between TAFE measures and other EF measures. To this end, a sample of 51 children, between 4 and 10 years old, enrolled in a private school in the municipality of Goiânia (GO), from preschool to the 4th year of elementary school, was used. As instruments, in addition to TAFE, the tasks of Corsi Block, Trails Test A and B, Preschool Trails Test, Preschool Stroop Test and the Digits Subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale were used. Kruskal Wallis statistical analyzes were conducted to verify the evidence of validity by age criteria and Spearman's nonparametric correlation analysis to assess evidence of convergent validation. The instrument investigated was effective to discriminate between different age groups, thus being sensitive to the development of EF. The results obtained in TAFE were correlated with those obtained in other tests that also assess FE, showing patterns of convergence. Therefore, the analysis of the results provides validation evidence to TAFE, derived from different investigation methods.

Resumen Las funciones ejecutivas (FE) se refieren al conjunto de habilidades que coordinan la conducta y la cognición. Así, el deterioro en el desarrollo de FE está relacionado con varios resultados negativos durante la vida. Por tanto, la valoración de estas habilidades en la infancia es fundamental para identificar y prevenir posibles daños en la vida adulta. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo investigar la evidencia de validez de la Prueba Computarizada para Evaluación de Funciones Ejecutivas (Tafe) por el criterio de edad y convergencia entre las medidas Tafe y otras medidas de FE. Para ello, se utilizó una muestra de 51 niños, de entre 4 y 10 años de edad, matriculados en un colegio privado de Goiânia (Goiás, Brasil) desde la preescolar hasta 4.º de primaria. Como instrumentos, además del Tafe, se utilizaron las tareas de Bloque de Corsi, el Test de los senderos A y B, el Test de los Senderos Preescolares, el Test de Stroop Preescolar y la Subprueba de Dígitos de la Escala Wechsler de Inteligencia. Se realizaron análisis estadísticos de Kruskal Wallis para verificar la validez por criterios de edad y análisis de correlación no-paramétrica de Spearman para evaluar la evidencia de validez convergente. Tafe demostró ser efectivo para discriminar entre diferentes grupos de edad, así es sensible al desarrollo de FE. Los resultados en Tafe se correlacionaron con los obtenidos en otras pruebas de FE, lo que muestra claros patrones de convergencia. Por tanto, el análisis aporta evidencias de validez para Tafe, derivadas de diferentes estrategias de investigación.

The relationship between morphological awareness and word reading in Brazilian Portuguese: a longitudinal study

Abstract Studies have provided evidence that morphological awareness contributes to word reading in opaque languages such as English. However, this relationship is not yet established for Brazilian Portuguese, a much less opaque language. The present study performed a longitudinal investigation of the relationship between morphological awareness and word reading in 162 children from 2nd to 5th grades of elementary school. The children were evaluated in the final quarter of the respective school year (time 1) and 1 year later (time 2). Hierarchical regression analyses controlling for intelligence, phonological awareness, and phonological working memory were conducted. The hierarchical regression analyses were followed up by cross-lagged panel correlations, and both results converged to word reading measured in the 2nd and 3rd grades contributing to morphological awareness 1 year later. In addition, morphological awareness measured in the 4th grade contributed to word reading 1 year later. The greater transparency of Brazilian Portuguese may make morphological awareness less important for word reading in the early grades; however, in older children, morphological awareness is important for word reading performance.

A cross-sectional study of the association between exposure to violence, intelligence, and executive function in Brazilian youths

Abstract We carried out an exploratory study of the association between exposure to violence, intelligence, and executive functions in Brazilian preadolescents. The study included 56 participants (31 males) aged 8 to 14 years old (mean = 11.3, SD = 1.0). We administered neuropsychological tests to evaluate executive functions and the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire (JVQ) to evaluate exposure to violence. We used the following neuropsychological instruments: Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI), Stroop Color-Word Interference task, digits subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, and an N-back task. We generated a composite score from neuropsychological test scores and investigated the association of that score, and individual test scores, with exposure to violence and socioeconomic status (SES). Results suggest, first, that exposure to violence is associated with a 0.5-point lower intelligence quotient score for every reported victimization event in the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire. Results also show that the digits backward subtest scores showed a significant negative correlation with exposure to violence (JVQ; rho = -0.29, p < 0.05); both analyses were adjusted for the level of schooling of parents or guardians, which was also found to be significantly associated with lower intelligence quotient scores. We discuss results in the light of the existing literature on the effects of exposure to violence on adolescent development, and the amounting evidence that suggests an association of exposure to violence, and of victimization, with tests that evaluate constructs of executive functions. The study struggled with low compliance from participants, and we underscore the challenges of carrying out empirical studies aimed at better understanding the development of underrepresented youths, such as those from Central and Latin America.

Central executive and target selection in visual working memory / Executivo central e seleção de alvos na memória de trabalho visual / Ejecutivo central y selección de estímulos por la memoria de trabajo visual

The goal of this study was to investigate if the selection of external information for storage in visual working memory requires control by the central executive when the categorization of targets is guided by instructions. The design was experimental 3 (concurrent task) x 2 (instruction). Forty-eight university students saw eight colored shapes, four of them surrounded by square outlines. Memory was assessed using a recognition task. Targets varied with instructions: targets were presented within squares in the first block and outside squares in the second block. There were three concurrent tasks: no task, articulatory suppression, and backward counting. Performance was measured by hits, false alarms, corrected recognition, and sensitivity (A'), compared using within-subject ANOVAs. Results showed a main effect only for concurrent task, with lower performance in the backward counting condition for all measures. These results suggest that the central executive does not control the perceptual filter, corroborating earlier results. (AU)

O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar se a seleção de informações externas para manutenção na memória de trabalho visual requer controle do executivo central, quando a categorização de alvos depende de instrução. O delineamento foi experimental três (tarefa concorrente) x duas (instrução). Participaram 48 universitários. Os participantes viam oito formas coloridas, quatro delas dentro de quadrados. A memória foi avaliada por reconhecimento. Os alvos dependiam de instrução: no primeiro bloco estavam dentro de quadrados e no segundo, fora de quadrados. Havia três tarefas concorrentes: sem tarefa, supressão articulatória e contagem inversa. O desempenho foi avaliado por acertos, alarmes falsos, taxa de reconhecimento correto e índice de sensibilidade A', comparados por meio de ANOVAs intrassujeitos. Os resultados mostraram apenas efeito principal da tarefa concorrente, com menor desempenho na condição contagem inversa em todas as medidas. Esse resultado sugere que o executivo central não controla o filtro perceptual, corroborando resultados anteriores. (AU)

El objetivo fue investigar si la selección de información externa para el mantenimiento de la memoria de trabajo visual requiere un control del ejecutivo central, cuando la categorización de los estímulos depende de instrucciones. El diseño fue experimental 3 (tarea concurrente) x 2 (instrucción). Los 48 estudiantes universitarios participantes vieron ocho formas de colores, cuatro de ellas dentro de cuadrados. La memoria se evaluó por reconocimiento. Los estímulos dependían de la instrucción: en el primer bloque estaban dentro de los cuadrados, y en el segundo, fuera de ellos. Hubo tres tareas recurrentes: ninguna tarea, supresión articulatoria y conteo inverso. El rendimiento se evaluó mediante aciertos, falsas alarmas, tasa de reconocimiento correcto e índice de sensibilidad A', mediante ANOVAs intrasujeto Los resultados mostraron solo el efecto principal de la tarea concurrente, con menor rendimiento en la condición de conteo inverso en todas las medidas. Los resultados sugieren que el ejecutivo central no controla el filtro perceptual, corroborando resultados anteriores. (AU)

La comprensión de narraciones orales y las diferencias individuales en niños con Trastornos del Espectro Autista / The oral narratives comprehension and individual differences in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Muchos niños con trastorno del espectro autista (TEA) presentan dificultad en la comprensión de narraciones orales. Investigaciones relacionadas reportan peores desempeños en inferencias emocionales respecto a otros tipos de inferencias. En este estudio participaron 15 niños con TEA entre 8 y 12 años, agrupados según nivel intelectual. Se evaluó la memoria de trabajo, la atención sostenida y el vocabulario; y medidas de comprensión como, la generación de inferencias y el recuerdo de información literal. Los resultados evidenciaron mejores desempeños en preguntas a inferencias emocionales y explicativas en los lectores con TEA sin déficit cognitivo en comparación a sus pares con déficit cognitivo. Además, no se encontraron diferencias significativas en desempeños a preguntas de información literal. Finalmente, el grupo con déficit cognitivo mostró mejor rendimiento en preguntas de inferencias explicativas respecto a otro tipo de inferencias, estos desempeños podrían vincularse con el tipo de material, narraciones orales acompañadas de ilustraciones AU

A lot of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) present difficulty in oral narrative comprehension. Related research reports worst performance in emotional inferences than other inferences type. This study involved 15 children with ASD between 8 and 12 years, grouped according to the intellectual level. Working memory, vocabulary and sustained attention were assessed. Also, comprehension measures such as generating inferences and recalling literal information. The results evidenced better performance in emotional and explanatory inference questions in readers with ASD and without cognitive deficit than their peers with cognitive deficit. In addition, no significant differences were found in performance on literal information questions. Finally, the group with cognitive deficit showed better performance in questions of explanatory inferences compared to other types of inferences, these performances could be linked to the type of material, oral narrations accompanied by illustrations AU

Intervención neuropsicológica sobre entrenamiento de memoria de trabajo con videojuego "Recuérdalo Todo" / Neuropsychological intervention on working memory training with the video game "Recuérdalo Todo" / Intervenção neuropsicológica no treino da memória de trabalho com o videojogo "Recuérdalo Todo"

RESUMEN Introducción: La intervención desde un enfoque neuropsicológico permite conseguir mejoras, aportar estrategias y proponer cambios que impactan el aprendizaje y la salud cognitiva de los participantes. El empleo de videojuegos muestra mejoras en habilidades de dominio general como la memoria de trabajo y de dominio específico como el rendimiento. Objetivo: Determinar el efecto del entrenamiento de memoria de trabajo a través del videojuego "Recuérdalo Todo" en el rendimiento académico (matemático y lector), en niños de preescolar y segundo grado. Método: Se realizó un estudio cuasi-experimental en La Habana, Cuba, durante el curso 2018-2019. Participaron 29 niños de preescolar (14 niñas) y 27 niños de segundo grado (8 niñas) que fueron asignados aleatoriamente a un grupo experimental (recibe entrenamiento con el videojuego) y un grupo control (no recibe el entrenamiento hasta no concluir los pos-test). Fueron evaluados antes y después del entrenamiento con pruebas de procesos de dominio general y rendimiento académico. Resultados: El entrenamiento tuvo una influencia positiva en los procesos de dominio general más que en el rendimiento académico. El tamaño del efecto de intervención en los procesos de dominio general fue medio, lo cual avaló la efectividad. Conclusiones: "Recuérdalo todo" tiene un efecto favorable sobre procesos de dominio general y sobre procesos predictores de la adquisición de la lectura en preescolares, así como en el procesamiento numérico en niños de segundo grado. Esta intervención sobre memoria de trabajo aporta herramientas que pueden contribuir a la preparación de los maestros para optimizar el aprendizaje de los escolares, lo que tiene un impacto en su salud cognitiva.

ABSTRACT Introduction: Intervention method, from a neuropsychological point of view, helps for increasing, giving strategies, and to propose impact changing in learning process and cognitive health of participants. The uses of video games have demonstrated improvements in domain-general skills such as working memory and domain-specific skills as the performance. Objective: Determine the effect of working memory training through the video game "Recuérdalo Todo" on academic performance (mathematics and reading) in Pre-kindergarten and second grade children. Methods: A quasi-experimental study was conducted during the academic year 2018-2019 in Havana, Cuba. A total of 29 pre-kindergarten children (among them 14 girls) and 27 second graders (including 8 girls) were involved. They were randomly assigned to two groups, an experimental group which received the working memory training sessions through the video game "Recuérdalo Todo") and a control group which not received the training sessions during that period, but after the post-tests were concluded. They were evaluated before and after training with tests of domain-general processes and academic performance. Results: The training had a positive influence on domain-general processes rather than on academic performance. The effect of this intervention on domain-general processes was medium, which supported its effectiveness. Conclusions: The video game "Recuérdalo Todo" has a favorable effect on domain - general processes of reading in pre-kindergarten children, as well as in the numerical processing for children of second grade. This working memory intervention provides tools that can contribute to the preparation of teachers in order to optimize the schoolchildren learning process with an impact on their cognitive health.

RESUMO Introdução: A intervenção a partir de uma abordagem neuropsicológica permite alcançar melhorias, fornecer estratégias e propor mudanças que impactam na aprendizagem e na saúde cognitiva dos participantes. O uso de videogames mostra melhorias em habilidades de domínio geral, como memória de trabalho, e habilidades de domínio específico, como desempenho. Objetivo: Determinar o efeito do treinamento da memória de trabalho por meio do videogame "Recuérdalo Todo" no desempenho acadêmico (matemático e leitura), em crianças da pré-escola e da segunda série. Método: Um estudo quase experimental foi realizado em Havana, Cuba, durante o ano letivo 2018-2019. Os participantes foram 29 crianças pré-escolares (14 meninas) e 27 crianças da segunda série (8 meninas) que foram aleatoriamente designadas para um grupo experimental (recebe treinamento com o videogame) e um grupo controle (não recebe treinamento até que os pós-testes sejam concluídos). Eles foram avaliados antes e após o treinamento com testes de processos de domínio geral e desempenho acadêmico. Resultados: O treinamento influenciou positivamente nos processos de domínio geral mais do que no desempenho acadêmico. O tamanho do efeito da intervenção nos processos de domínio geral foi médio, o que apoiou a eficácia. Conclusões: "Recuérdalo Todo" tem um efeito favorável nos processos de domínio geral e nos processos preditivos de aquisição de leitura em pré-escolares, bem como no processamento numérico em crianças do segundo ano. Esta intervenção na memória de trabalho fornece ferramentas que podem contribuir para a preparação dos professores para otimizar a aprendizagem dos escolares, o que tem impacto na sua saúde cognitiva.

Do boys with MAOA_LPR*2R allele present cognitive and learning impairments? / Meninos com o alelo maoa_lpr*2r apresentam prejuízos cognitivos e de aprendizagem?

ABSTRACT. Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) polymorphisms have been associated with antisocial disorders. Less attention has been paid to the cognitive functioning of individuals with different MAOA alleles. No study has described the cognitive phenotype associated with the less frequent, low enzyme activity allele, MAOA_LPR*2R. Objective: We describe the cognitive correlates of boys having MAOA_LPR*2R allele, ascertained in a sample of school children with normal intelligence, not referred for behavioral disorders. Methods: Participants were eight boys, attending from the second to fifth grades in state-run schools. They were identified among 712 children with typical general cognitive ability, genotyped for MAOA_LPR polymorphism. Participants were assessed with general intelligence, mathematics and spelling achievement, and verbal and visuospatial working memory tests. Neuropsychological performance was compared to published standards, using 1 SD below the mean as a cutoff value for low performance. Results: Intelligence of boys with MAOA_LPR*2R allele varied from above average (N=2) to low average in the other children. Five out of eight boys with the MAOA_LPR*2R allele had low mathematics achievement, and three presented additional difficulties with spelling. Four out of eight children had low short-term and working memory performance. Discussion: This is the first study describing cognitive correlates and school performance in boys having the MAOA_LPR*2R allele. Having this allele, and therefore, probably low MAO-A activity, does not necessarily imply low intelligence or low school performance. However, learning difficulties, particularly in math, and low working memory performance were observed in boys having this allele. This suggests a role of MAOA in learning difficulties.

RESUMO. Polimorfismos da monoaminoxidase A (MAOA) são associados a transtornos antissociais. Menos atenção tem sido dada ao funcionamento cognitivo de indivíduos com diferentes alelos de MAOA. Nenhum estudo descreveu o fenótipo cognitivo associado ao alelo menos frequente, de baixa atividade enzimática, MAOA_LPR*2R. Objetivo: Descrevemos os correlatos cognitivos de meninos com o alelo MAOA_LPR*2R, identificados em uma amostra de escolares com inteligência normal, não encaminhados por transtornos de comportamento. Métodos: Oito meninos com o alelo MAOA_LPR*2R foram identificados entre 712 crianças genotipadas, com inteligência típica, que cursavam do 2º ao 5º ano em escolas públicas. Foram avaliados: inteligência, desempenho em matemática e ortografia, memória de trabalho verbal e visuoespacial. O desempenho foi comparado a normas publicadas, utilizando-se 1 desvio padrão (DP) abaixo da média como ponto de corte para desempenho rebaixado. Resultados: A inteligência dos meninos com alelo MAOA_LPR*2R variou de acima da média (N=2) a médio-inferior nas demais crianças. Cinco dos oito meninos com alelo MAOA_LPR*2R apresentaram desempenho rebaixado em matemática e três apresentaram dificuldades adicionais em ortografia. Quatro dos oito meninos apresentaram baixo desempenho de memória de curto prazo e de trabalho. Discussão: Este é o primeiro estudo a descrever os correlatos cognitivos e o desempenho escolar em meninos com alelo MAOA_LPR*2R. Ter esse alelo não significa necessariamente baixa inteligência ou baixo desempenho escolar. No entanto, dificuldades de aprendizagem, principalmente em matemática, e desempenho rebaixado da memória de trabalho foram observados em mais da metade dos meninos com esse alelo. Isso sugere um papel do MAOA nas dificuldades de aprendizagem.

Efeito agudo da prática esportiva com engajamento cognitivo nas funções executivas em crianças / Acute effect of sports practice with cognitive engagement on children's cognition

O objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar o efeito agudo da prática de uma sessão de futsal com engajamento cognitivo na memória de trabalho e no controle inibitório de crianças. Trata-se de um estudo controlado e randomizado com abordagem quantitativa do tipo Crossover. Foram recrutadas 33 crianças (com idade entre 8 e 10 anos) de ambos os sexos que foram submetidas a duas sessões experimentais: 1) Sessão jogo com duração de 15 min baseada no futsal com maiores demandas de engajamento cognitivo. 2) Sessão controle que consistiu em 15 min de repouso em uma sala. Foram aplicados imediatamente antes e após as sessões o DigitSpan e o Stroop Test para avaliar a memória de trabalho e o controle inibitório, respectivamente. As equações de estimativas generalizadas foram utilizadas para verificar a interação entre o tempo e as intervenções. Os resultados indicaram interação sessão*tempo significativa para a memória de trabalho, precisamente na ordem direta do DigitSpan, indicando aumento significante de pré para pós-intervenção para a sessão jogo com um tamanho de efeito pequeno (p = 0,012; d = 0,38). Após a sessão jogo, as crianças também apresentaram melhora significativa, com tamanho do efeito médio na acurácia da fase incongruente (p = 0,008; d = 0,63) do Stroop Test e menor tempo para resposta em comparação à sessão controle (p = 0,029). O estudo apontou que a atividade física com engajamento cognitivo teve efeito sobre o controle inibitório de crianças

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the acute effect of practicing a futsal session with cognitive engagement on working memory and inhibitory control in children. This is a controlled and randomized study with a quantitative crossover approach. 33 children (aged between 8 and 10 years) of both sexes were recruited and submitted to two experimental sessions: 1) Game session lasting 15 min based on futsal with greater demands for cognitive engagement. 2) Control session consisting of 15 min of rest in a room. The DigitSpan and Stroop Test were applied immediately before and after the sessions to assess working memory and inhibitory control, respectively. Generalized estimating equations were used to verify the interaction between time and interventions. The results indicated a significant session*time interaction for working memory, precisely in the direct order of DigitSpan, indicating a significant increase from pre to post-in-tervention for the game session with a small effect size (p = 0.012; d = 0.38). After the game session, the children also showed significant improvement, with a mean effect size on the accuracy of the incongruous phase (p = 0.008; d = 0.63) of the Stroop Test and a shorter time to respond compared to the control session (p = 0.029). The study pointed out that physical activity with cognitive engagement had an effect on the inhibitory control of children

Effects of cognitive training on working memory of female methamphetamine-dependent youths / 中华行为医学与脑科学杂志

Objective:To explore the characteristics of working memory ability of female methamphetamine dependent youths, and to analyze the effect of spatial and temporal training task (CODING) on working memory ability of female methamphetamine dependent youths.Methods:Sixty methamphetamine dependent youths from a women's drug rehabilitation center in Sichuan province were selected as the methamphetamine dependent group, while 60 female healthy volunteers from vocational high schools and universities participated as the healthy control group. Visual memory test (VISGED) was used to evaluat the working memory ability of the subjects, and SPSS 21.0 software was used for the nonparametric test of the memory difference between the two groups.The methamphetamine dependent group was divided into treatment group and waiting group based on the baseline matching principle of working memory. The treatment group was trained under the spatio-temporal CODING paradigm for working memory, and the training effect was assessed using the independent sample t-test. Results:(1)The individual parameters(0.06(-1.62, 1.67) vs 1.93 (-0.28, 2.71)) and working program(15.00(14.00 vs 16.00), 17.00(15.00, 20.00)) of working memory in methamphetamine dependent group and normal control group were statistically significant ( Z=-3.83, P<0.05, Z=-3.50; P<0.05). (2) Through memory training, the personal parameters before and after training in the treatment group ((0.08±1.79) vs 1.68 (0.68, 2.25)) had a statistically significant difference ( Z=-3.63, P<0.05). The personal parameters before and after the test in the waiting group ((-0.01±1.86) vs 0.72(-1.54, 1.88)) had no statistically significant difference ( Z=-1.35, P>0.05). Conclusion:Methamphetamine dependence impaire the working memory of female youths regardless of age or education level. Memory training can restore and improve memory ability to a certain extent, help to restore learning ability and living ability, and lay a foundation for a better return to society.

Performance of memory task indicators for assessment of the risk of depressive disorders / 预防医学

Objective@#To evaluate the risk of depressive disorders using memory task indicators, so as to provide insights into clinical assessment of depressive disorders.@*Methods@#A total of 68 patients with depressive disorders undergoing treatments in the departments of psychiatrics and clinical psychology in a tertiary hospital during the period from January to September, 2021 were enrolled as the case group, while a total of 31 hospital employees, social volunteers and university students served as controls. The error rate and response time of classical memory task experiments were compared between the two groups, including implicit memory, short-term memory and working memory tasks. In addition, the predictive indicators of depressive disorders were identified using multivariable logistic regression analysis and receiver operative characteristics (ROC) curve.@*Results@#The case group included 29 men and 39 women and had a mean age of (24.12±7.40) years, including 46 subjects with an educational level higher than diploma. The control group included 15 men and 16 women and had a mean age of (26.45±6.65) years, including 23 subjects with an educational level higher than diploma. Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed significant associations of age of >18 years (OR=3.431, 95%CI: 1.259-9.350), error rate of 2-back task (OR=1.056, 95%CI: 1.016-1.097) and error rate of short-term memory tasks (OR=1.078, 95%CI: 1.009-1.152) with the development of depressive disorders. ROC curve analysis showed that the error rate of 2-back tasks showed an area under the ROC curve (AUC) of 0.730 (95%CI: 0.630-0.831), cutoff of 22.5%, sensitivity of 42.6% and specificity of 93.5% for prediction of the risk of depressive disorders, and the error rate of short-term memory tasks showed an AUC of 0.717 (95%CI: 0.605-0.829), cutoff of 23.5%, sensitivity of 67.6% and specificity of 71.0% for prediction of the risk of depressive disorders. In addition, the combination of the error rate of 2-back tasks and the error rate of short-term memory tasks showed an AUC of 0.829 (95%CI: 0.734-0.923), sensitivity of 75.0% and specificity of 80.6% for prediction of the risk of depressive disorders.@*Conclusion@#Short-term and working memory task indicators are feasible for assessment of the risk of depressive disorders.

Intermittent theta burst stimulation can improve the spatially-delayed responses of working memory / 中华物理医学与康复杂志

Objective:To observe any effect of intermittent theta burst stimulation (iTBS) on the spatially-delayed responses of working memory using cynomolgus macaques.Methods:The working memory of six male cynomolgus macaques (8-9 years old) was trained using a spatially-delayed response task. They were then randomly divided into an iTBS group and a control group, each of 3. The iTBS group was given iTBS at an intensity of 35% of the maximum output, with 2 seconds of stimulation followed by 8 seconds of rest with trains of 50Hz bursts repeated at a frequency of 5Hz over a period of 192 seconds once daily for 5 days, while the control group was given sham iTBS. Before and after the 5 days, the body weight and working memory of each animal were evaluated. The total number of effective feeding episodes, and of effective feeding episodes with short and long delay periods were recorded.Results:There was no significant change in the average body weight of either group before and after the modeling and iTBS intervention. After the intervention the number of total effective feeding cases and those with a short delay period were both significantly higher in the iTBS group than in the control group. However, no significant inter-group differences in the effective feeding cases with a long delay period were observed.Conclusions:iTBS is effective in improving the spatially-delayed responses of working memory, at least in cynomolgus macaques.

Working memory training improves the executive function and ability in the activities of daily living of stroke survivors / 中华物理医学与康复杂志

Objective:To explore any effect of working memory training on executive functioning and ability in the activities of daily living after a stroke.Methods:Forty-six stroke survivors were randomly divided into an experimental group and a control group, each of 23. Both groups received conventional cognitive rehabilitation (including computer-assisted cognition training and virtual reality training using upper limb rehabilitation robots), while the experimental group also received working memory training. Before, as well as after 4 and 8 weeks of the treatment, both groups′ executive functioning was evaluated using the Trail Making test, the Frontal Assessment Battery and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test-64. Ability in the activities of daily living was quantified using the functional independence measures (FIMs).Results:There were no significant differences between the two groups in any of the measurements before the training. After 4 weeks the average scores of the experimental group on all four instruments were significantly higher than the control group′s averages. After 8 weeks the average scores had improved significantly more. The treatment group performed significantly better than the control group throughout.Conclusions:Working memory training can improve executive functioning and the daily life of stroke survivors.

Phase amplitude coupling analysis of local field potentials in working memory of rats affected by transcranial magneto-acoustic-electrical stimulation / 生物医学工程学杂志

Transcranial magneto-acoustic-electrical stimulation is a new non-invasive neuromodulation technology, in which the induced electric field generated by the coupling effect of ultrasound and static magnetic field are used to regulate the neural rhythm oscillation activity in the corresponding brain region. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the effects of transcranial magneto-acoustic-electrical stimulation on the information transfer and communication in neuronal clusters during memory. In the experiment, twenty healthy adult Wistar rats were randomly divided into a control group (five rats) and stimulation groups (fifteen rats). Transcranial magneto-acoustic-electrical stimulation of 0.05~0.15 T and 2.66~13.33 W/cm 2 was applied to the rats in stimulation groups, and no stimulation was applied to the rats in the control group. The local field potentials signals in the prefrontal cortex of rats during the T-maze working memory tasks were acquired. Then the coupling differences between delta rhythm phase, theta rhythm phase and gamma rhythm amplitude of rats in different parameter stimulation groups and control group were compared. The experimental results showed that the coupling intensity of delta and gamma rhythm in stimulation groups was significantly lower than that in the control group ( P<0.05), while the coupling intensity of theta and gamma rhythm was significantly higher than that in the control group ( P<0.05). With the increase of stimulation parameters, the degree of coupling between delta and gamma rhythm showed a decreasing trend, while the degree of coupling between theta and gamma rhythm tended to increase. The preliminary results of this paper indicated that transcranial magneto-acoustic-electrical stimulation inhibited delta rhythmic neuronal activity and enhanced the oscillation of theta and gamma rhythm in the prefrontal cortex, thus promoted the exchange and transmission of information between neuronal clusters in different spatial scales. This lays the foundation for further exploring the mechanism of transcranial magneto-acoustic-electrical stimulation in regulating brain memory function.

Neurovascular coupling analysis of working memory based on electroencephalography and functional near-infrared spectroscopy / 生物医学工程学杂志

Working memory is an important foundation for advanced cognitive function. The paper combines the spatiotemporal advantages of electroencephalography (EEG) and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to explore the neurovascular coupling mechanism of working memory. In the data analysis, the convolution matrix of time series of different trials in EEG data and hemodynamic response function (HRF) and the blood oxygen change matrix of fNIRS are extracted as the coupling characteristics. Then, canonical correlation analysis (CCA) is used to calculate the cross correlation between the two modal features. The results show that CCA algorithm can extract the similar change trend of related components between trials, and fNIRS activation of frontal pole region and dorsolateral prefrontal lobe are correlated with the delta, theta, and alpha rhythms of EEG data. This study reveals the mechanism of neurovascular coupling of working memory, and provides a new method for fusion of EEG data and fNIRS data.

Therapeutic effects of risperidone combined with olanzapine on first-episode schizophrenia in 30 patients / 中国基层医药

Objective:To investigate the clinical efficacy of risperidone combined with olanzapine in the treatment of first-episode schizophrenia and its effects on serum homocysteine level and cognitive function.Methods:Sixty patients with first-episode schizophrenia who received treatment in Yiwu Mental Health Center from May 2017 to May 2018 were included in this study. They were randomly assigned to receive either olanzapine (control group, n = 30) or olanzapine and risperidone (observation group, n = 30) treatment. All patients received 4 weeks of treatment. We compared serum homocysteine level, cognitive function, and clinical efficacy between the two groups. Results:There was no significant difference in serum homocysteine level pre-treatment between the two groups ( P > 0.05). Serum homocysteine level post-treatment was significantly lower in the observation group than in the control group [(13.59 ± 2.61) mmol/L vs. (15.83 ± 2.58) mmol/L, t = 3.34, P < 0.05). There were no significant differences in the scores of each cognitive function item pre-treatment between the two groups (all P > 0.05). The scores of each cognitive function item post-treatment in the observation group was (15.06 ± 2.28) points, (21.18 ± 3.26) points, (44.39 ± 4.42) points, (40.63 ± 6.27) points, which were significantly superior to those in the control group [(13.31 ± 2.04) points, (19.26 ± 3.07) points, (42.43 ± 2.07) points, (44.19 ± 5.86) points, t = 3.13, 2.34, 2.12, 2.27, all P < 0.05]. The total improvement rate was significantly higher in the observation group than in the control group [93.33% (28/30) vs. 70.00% (21/30), χ2 = 5.45, P < 0.05). Conclusion:Risperidone combined with olanzapine is highly effective on first-episode schizophrenia. The combined therapy can reduce serum homocysteine level and improve cognitive function.

Entrainment of Astrocytic and Neuronal Ca2+ Population Dynamics During Information Processing of Working Memory in Mice / 神经科学通报·英文版

Astrocytes are increasingly recognized to play an active role in learning and memory, but whether neural inputs can trigger event-specific astrocytic Ca2+ dynamics in real time to participate in working memory remains unclear due to the difficulties in directly monitoring astrocytic Ca2+ dynamics in animals performing tasks. Here, using fiber photometry, we showed that population astrocytic Ca2+ dynamics in the hippocampus were gated by sensory inputs (centered at the turning point of the T-maze) and modified by the reward delivery during the encoding and retrieval phases. Notably, there was a strong inter-locked and antagonistic relationship between the astrocytic and neuronal Ca2+ dynamics with a 3-s phase difference. Furthermore, there was a robust synchronization of astrocytic Ca2+ at the population level among the hippocampus, medial prefrontal cortex, and striatum. The inter-locked, bidirectional communication between astrocytes and neurons at the population level may contribute to the modulation of information processing in working memory.

Effect of electroacupuncture on regional homogeneity of brain function in rats with vascular cognitive impairment / 中国康复理论与实践

@#Objective To observe the effect of electroacupuncture at Baihui (DU20) and Shenting (DU24) on brain functional activity and working memory of rats with vascular cognitive impairment (VCI). Methods Eighteen Sprague-Dawley rats were included, in which twelve rats were ligated bilateral common carotid arteries and six rats were not ligated (sham group). The modeled rats were randomly divided into model group (n = 6) and electroacupuncture group (n = 6). The electroacupuncture group received electroacupuncture at Baihui and Shenting for four weeks. They were assessed with Y maze and Morris water maze before and after intervention, and scaned with resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging after intervention to calculate regional homogeneity (ReHo). Results Compared with the sham group, alternation rate of Y maze decreased (P < 0.001), and escape latency of Morris water maze increased (P < 0.05) in the model group and the electroacupuncture group before intervention. Compared with the model group, alternation rate of Y maze increased (P < 0.05), and escape latency of Morris water maze decreased (P < 0.05) after intervention in the electroacupuncture group. Compared with the sham group, ReHo of bilateral hippocampus, olfactory cortex, sensory cortex and auditory cortex, and left striatum decreased in the model group; compared with the model group, ReHo of bilateral prefrontal lobe, hippocampus and olfactory cortex, and left amygdala increased in the electroacupuncture group. Conclusion Electroacupuncture at Baihui and Shenting can improve the memory function of VCI rats, which may be related to the functional activities of prefrontal lobes, hippocampus and amygdala.

Entrenamiento de la memoria de trabajo en la enfermedad vascular cerebral: revisión sistemática / Working Memory Training after cerebrovascular disease: a systematic review / Treinamento Da Memória Operacional Na Doença Cerebrovascular: Revisão Sistemática

Objetivo: mejorar la independencia funcional de los pacientes con enfermedad vascular cerebral (EVC) es uno de los objetivos que se plantean los equipos de rehabilitación física y cognitiva. Uno de los modelos que podría dar respuesta a este objetivo es el entrenamiento cognitivo de la memoria de trabajo (MT). Aunque esta estrategia se viene estudiando desde hace 20 años, aún es necesario realizar un estudio de revisión sistemática que permita conocer con claridad los efectos del entrenamiento cognitivo computarizado de la MT en el funcionamiento de la vida diaria en pacientes con EVC isquémica. Metodología: para ello, se creó una ecuación de búsqueda para aplicar en la base de datos Web of Science (WoS), en el rango temporal desde enero de 2010 a enero de 2019. Posteriormente, se realiza un análisis bibliométrico con el objetivo de identificar los autores y revistas más importantes sobre el tema de investigación. Finalmente, el reporte cronológico identifica la evolución y avances del impacto de los entrenamientos de la memoria de trabajo en la EVC. Resultados: se encontraron tres enfoques relacionados con: efectos de un programa de realidad virtual en las actividades de la vida diaria, efectos del entrenamiento de la MT en la plasticidad cerebral y efectos del entrenamiento cognitivo de la MT en las actividades de la vida diaria. Conclusión: se ha propuesto el desempeño cognitivo como uno de los componentes más importantes del funcionamiento en la vida diaria, particularmente la MT como mediador entre los programas de entrenamiento cognitivo y las habilidades funcionales. Los entrenamientos cognitivos reducen el deterioro cognitivo y el riesgo de demencia. Sin embargo, los beneficios de un entrenamiento cognitivo se limitan a dominios muy similares a los entrenados (transferencia cercana, más que lejana).

Objective: improving functional independence of patients with cerebrovascular disease has become one of the main goals for physical and cognitive rehabilitation teams. A well-known framework that addresses this issue is Working Memory Training. Although this model has been studied for more than twenty years, a systematic review on the effects of Working Memory Training after ischemic stroke and its impact on everyday functioning is still needed. Methodology: thus, a search equation has been proposed on Web of Science database from January 2010 to January 2019. Then, a bibliometric analysis presents the most important authors and journals in the research topic. Finally, a chronological report shows advanced research lines and effects of Working Memory Training in patients with cerebrovascular disease. Results:these findings showed 3 approaches related to the following: effects of virtual reality-based programs on everyday functioning, effects of Working Memory Training on brain plasticity, and effects of Working Memory Training on everyday life. Conclusion: cognitive performance has been proposed to be one of the most important components of functioning in daily life. Working Memory has been shown to strongly mediate between cognitive training and functional abilities. Cognitive training is asso-ciated with less cognitive decline and reduced risk of dementia. However, the benefits from cognitive training may be limited to highly similar domains (close transfer rather than far transfer).

Introdução: melhorar a independência funcional do paciente com doença cerebrovas-cular (DCV) é um dos objetivos traçados pelas equipes de reabilitação física e cognitiva. Um dos modelos que poderia responder a esse objetivo é o treinamento cognitivo da memória de trabalho (MT).Objetivo: embora essa estratégia seja estudada há 20 anos, ainda é necessário realizar um estudo de revisão sistemática que nos permita conhecer claramente os efeitos do treinamento cognitivo computadorizado da MT no funcionamento da vida diária em pacientes com DCV isquêmica.Metodologia: para isso, foi criada uma equação de busca a ser aplicada na base de dados Web of Science (WoS), no período de janeiro de 2010 a janeiro de 2019. Pos-teriormente, é realizada uma análise bibliométrica a fim de identificar os autores mais importantes e periódicos sobre o tema de pesquisa. Por fim, o relatório cronológico identifica a evolução e a evolução do impacto do treino da memória de trabalho no CVS.Resultados: foram encontradas três abordagens relacionadas a: efeitos de um programa de realidade virtual nas atividades da vida diária, efeitos do treinamento da MT na plas-ticidade cerebral e efeitos do treinamento cognitivo da MT nas atividades da vida diária.Conclusão: o desempenho cognitivo tem sido proposto como um dos componentes mais importantes do funcionamento na vida diária, particularmente a MT como media-dor entre programas de treinamento cognitivo e habilidades funcionais. O treinamento cognitivo reduz o declínio cognitivo e o risco de demência. No entanto, os benefícios do treinamento cognitivo são limitados a domínios muito semelhantes aos treinados (transferência próxima, em vez de distante).

Correlations between working memory capacity and EFL reading comprehension: an investigation with Brazilian university students / Correlações entre capacidade de memória de trabalho e compreensão leitora em Inglês como Língua Estrangeira: uma investigação com estudantes universitários brasileiros

Reading in a foreign language is considered a high cognitive function, believed, thus, to impose demands on working memory resources. Studies have shown significant correlations between working memory capacity and foreign language reading comprehension, but its underlying mechanisms are still open to discussion. This article reports on a study whose objective was to investigate possible correlations between working memory capacity and foreign language reading comprehension considering the knowledge of the first language as a possible source of interference. A recall task was conducted in two conditions, one in which readers performed the task in English and another, in Portuguese. Results showed a weak but statistically significant correlation between working memory capacity and recall scores in the second condition and no correlations between working memory capacity and reading time. Exploratory data analyses suggested that the correlation observed was influenced by foreign language reading proficiency and that the ratio of recall scores to reading time is a better measure of comprehension efficiency.

A leitura em língua estrangeira é considerada uma função cognitiva de alto nível que se acredita, portanto, impor demandas nos recursos da memória de trabalho. Estudos mostram correlações significativas entre capacidade de memória de trabalho e compreensão leitora em língua estrangeira, mas seus mecanismos subjacentes ainda estão abertos a discussões. Esse artigo reporta um estudo cujo objetivo foi investigar possíveis correlações entre capacidade de memória de trabalho e compreensão leitora em língua estrangeira considerando o conhecimento da primeira língua como uma possível fonte de interferência. Uma tarefa de recordação foi conduzida em duas condições, uma em que os leitores realizaram a tarefa em inglês e outra, em português. Os resultados mostraram uma correlação fraca, mas estatisticamente significativa entre capacidade de memória de trabalho e pontuações no teste de recordação na segunda condição e nenhuma correlação entre capacidade de memória de trabalho e tempo de leitura. Análises exploratórias dos dados apontaram que a correlação observada foi influenciada pela proficiência de leitura em língua estrangeira e que a razão entre pontuações do teste de recordação e tempo de leitura é uma medida mais apropriada para a eficiência da compreensão leitora.

Cognitive training using the abacus: a literature review study on the benefits for different age groups / Treino cognitivo com o uso do ábaco: um estudo de revisão da literatura sobre os benefícios para os diferentes grupos etários

ABSTRACT. The literature indicates that cognitive stimulation interventions have shown promising results. Abacus represents a tool with great potential in such interventions. Objectives: To carry out a systematic review of studies published in recent years that entailed the delivery of a cognitive training program using an abacus to boost target cognitive abilities of older persons and also other age groups, with or without cognitive impairment. Methods: A systematic review study was conducted in July 2020 involving PubMed, MedLine, LILACS, and SciELO databases. Results: A total of 29 studies were retrieved, of which 8 aimed to identify the effect of abacus-based mental calculation (AMC) for different age groups and to determine its applicability as a method of cognitive stimulation for older adults. In AMC technique, participants first learn to use the physical abacus (PA) and after achieving proficiency they perform calculations using a mental image of the device, manipulating the beads of the so-called mental abacus (MA). Conclusions: The number of studies addressing abacus use as a cognitive training tool was rather limited, considering the relevance of the theme. Their interventions have shown benefits for cognitive functioning of individuals of various age groups, including older adults with cognitive impairment. Future studies that involve larger samples of healthy and/or cognitively impaired older adults with a longitudinal design and a more elaborate methodological design are suggested.

RESUMO. A literatura aponta que intervenções de estimulação cognitiva têm mostrado resultados promissores. O ábaco representa uma ferramenta com grande potencial nesse tipo de intervenções. Objetivo: Realizar uma revisão sistemática de estudos publicados nos últimos anos que buscaram, em seus métodos, oferecer um programa de treino cognitivo com o uso do ábaco para estimular habilidades-alvo em idosos e em pessoas de outras faixas etárias, com ou sem comprometimento cognitivo. Métodos: Estudo de revisão sistemática, realizado em julho de 2020, utilizando-se as bases de dados PubMed, MedLine, LILACS e SciELO. Resultados: Um total de 29 estudos foram encontrados, dos quais oito objetivaram identificar o efeito do treino de uma técnica chamada abacus-based mental calculation (AMC) em diferentes faixas etárias e verificar sua aplicabilidade como método de estimulação cognitiva para idosos. No AMC, os participantes aprendem inicialmente a manipular o ábaco físico (PA, na sigla em inglês) e, após adquirirem agilidade, passam a realizar cálculos com uma imagem mental do instrumento, manipulando as contas do denominado ábaco mental (MA, na sigla em inglês). Conclusões: O número de estudos que abordaram o uso do ábaco como ferramenta para realização de treino cognitivo foi bastante limitado diante da relevância do tema. Os estudos analisados apresentaram benefícios do treino cognitivo com uso do ábaco para o desempenho cognitivo de indivíduos de diversas faixas etárias, inclusive em idosos com comprometimento cognitivo. Para estudos futuros, espera-se a realização de mais pesquisas com amostras maiores, com delineamento longitudinal e com métodos bem elaborados, com enfoque em pessoas idosas, saudáveis e/ou com comprometimento cognitivo.