Comparative study of the distribution and expression of Neuroglobin and Hypoxia-inducible factor-1α in the adult and young Yak Brain / Estudo comparativo da distribuição e expressão de neuroglobina e fator-1α indutível por hipóxia em adultos e jovens iaques (Yak Brain)

Background: The brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. Aim: The study examined the expression of Neuroglobin (Ngb) and Hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (Hif-1α) in adult and young yak brain tissues, and provided researchers with meaningful insight into the anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry of this mammal. Method: The study employed immunohistochemistry (IHC), quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR), and Western blot (WB) to obtain the results. Results: Ngb and Hif-1α were significantly (P<0.05) expressed in the cerebellar cortex, piriform lobe, medulla, and corpus callosum of the adult yak while in the young yak brain tissues, the protein expressions were significantly found in the white matter of the cerebellum, pineal gland, corpus callosum, and cerebellar cortex. The Ngb and Hif-1α expression showed similarities and differences. This may have resulted from similar animal species, source of nutrition, age factors, brain size, emotional activities, and communication. The findings documented that Ngb and Hif-1α are commonly expressed in various adult and young yak brain tissues. Multiple roles in the brain tissues of the adult and young yaks are involved in the expression and distribution and are proposed to play a significant role in the adaptation of the yak to the high altitude environment. Conclusion: This study provides meaningful data to understand the adaptive mechanism to hypoxia and recommended researchers to expand on the adaptive mechanism and brain tissues that are not recorded.

Contexto: O cérebro é um órgão que funciona como o centro do sistema nervoso em todos os animais vertebrados e na maioria dos invertebrados. Objetivo: O estudo examinou a expressão de neuroglobina (Ngb) e fator-1α indutível por hipóxia (Hif-1α) em tecidos cerebrais de iaques adultos e jovens e forneceu aos pesquisadores uma visão significativa da anatomia, fisiologia e bioquímica desse mamífero. Método: O estudo utilizou imuno-histoquímica (IHC), PCR quantitativo em tempo real (qRT-PCR) e western blot (WB) para a obtenção dos resultados. Resultados: Ngb e Hif-1α foram significativamente (P < 0,05) expressos no córtex cerebelar, lobo piriforme, medula e corpo caloso do iaque adulto, enquanto nos tecidos cerebrais do iaque jovem as expressões proteicas foram encontradas significativamente na substância branca do cerebelo, glândula pineal, corpo caloso e córtex cerebelar. A expressão de Ngb e Hif-1α apresentou semelhanças e diferenças. Isso pode ter resultado de espécies animais semelhantes, fonte de nutrição, fatores de idade, tamanho do cérebro, atividades emocionais e comunicação. Os resultados documentaram que o Ngb e o Hif-1α são comumente expressos em vários tecidos cerebrais de iaques adultos e jovens. Múltiplos papéis nos tecidos cerebrais de iaques adultos e jovens estão envolvidos na expressão e distribuição e são propostos para desempenhar um papel significativo na adaptação do iaque ao ambiente de alta altitude. Conclusão: Este estudo fornece dados significativos para compreender o mecanismo adaptativo à hipóxia e recomendou que os pesquisadores expandissem o mecanismo adaptativo e os tecidos cerebrais que não foram registrados.

Minimal and normal-flow general anesthesia in patients undergoing surgery in prone position: impact on hemodynamics and regional cerebral oxygenation

Purpose: In this study, the aim to assess the combined effects of prone-positioning (PP) and minimal-flow (MF) general anesthesia on regional cerebral oxygenation (RCO) and systemic hemodynamics. Methods: This is a randomized prospective study aiming to evaluate changes in cerebral oxygenation and hemodynamic parameters in MF systemic anesthesia in patients undergoing surgery in PP. Patients were randomized to MF or normal-flow (NF) anesthesia. In the operating room, pulse rate, mean arterial pressure (MAP), peripheral hemoglobin oxygen saturation (spO2), and right- and left-side RCO (assessed by nearinfrared spectroscopy, NIRS) were measured perioperatively. Results: Overall, 46 patients were included (24 in the MF group and 22 in the NF group). The amount of anesthetic gas consumption was significantly lower in the low-flow (LF) group. In both groups, the mean pulse rate showed a decrease after PP. Before induction, RCO was significantly higher both at the right- and left-sides in the LF group compared to the NF group. This difference continued throughout the operation on the left-side and disappeared 10 min after intubation on the right-side. On the left side, mean RCO decreased after PP in both groups. Conclusion: MF anesthesia in PP did not reduce cerebral oxygenation compared to NF and was safe in terms of systemic hemodynamics and cerebral oxygenation.

Funciones ejecutivas: una revisión de su fundamentación teórica / Executive functions: a review of their theoretical basis

El presente artículo busca establecer los fundamentos de las funciones ejecutivas (FE) a nivel conceptual, para lo cual se plantea el seguimiento de los siguientes elementos: a) definición de las funciones cerebrales inferiores y superiores; b) relación entre FE y estructura anatomo-funcional; y c) confluencia final de las FE en un modelo integrador. a) Las funciones cerebrales inferiores están ligadas a los procesos más primitivos del ser humano. Permiten la satisfacción de necesidades básicas para la supervivencia; por tanto, se refieren a las capacidades adquiridas genéticamente sin que para su ejecución medie ningún proceso de aprendizaje. Por su parte, las funciones cerebrales superio-res se emparentan con los procesos neuropsicológicos bajo los cuales se sustenta la capacidad de modificar el ambiente y las circunstancias. Lo anterior ocurre gracias a: memoria, atención, lenguaje, razonamiento abstracto, actos gestuales y funciones ejecutivas (Rodríguez et al., 2006). Estas funciones cerebrales son el fundamento de las FE. b) Frente a su localización anatómica y funcional, Goldberg (2001) determina los lóbulos frontales como principal sustrato, por cuanto representan el centro ejecutivo del cerebro y la porción cerebral con mayor evolución de la corteza. Estos son los en-cargados de recibir la información de los estímulos y de la totalidad de las modalidades sensoriales. c) La anterior conceptualización permite definir las FE como un conjunto de capacidades referidas a la formulación de metas, planificación para el logro de dichas metas y la ejecución de la conducta de manera eficaz (Lezak, 1982).

This article seeks to establish the foundations of executive functions (EF) at a conceptual level, for which the following elements are proposed: a) definition of lower and higher brain functions; b) relationship between EF and anatomical-functional structure; and c) final confluence of EF in an integrative model. a) Lower brain functions are linked to the most primitive processes of the human being. They allow the satisfaction of basic needs for survival; therefore, they refer to genetically acquired capacities without any learning process for their execution. On the other hand, higher brain functions are related to the neuropsychological processes under which the capacity to modify the environment and circumstances is sustained. This occurs thanks to: memory, attention, language, abstract reasoning, gestural acts and executive functions (Rodriguez et al., 2006). These brain functions are the foundation of EF. b) Regarding its anatomical and functional location, Goldberg (2001) determines the frontal lobes as the main substrate, since they represent the executive center of the brain and the cerebral portion with the highest evolution of the cortex. These are responsible for receiving information from stimuli and from the totality of sensory modalities. c) The above conceptualization allows defining EF as a set of capacities referred to the formulation of goals, planning for the achievement of these goals and the execution of behavior in an effective manner (Lezak, 1982).

Cortical Brain Functions ­ The Brodmann Legacy in the 21st Century

In 1909, Korbinian Brodmann described 52 functional brain areas, 43 of them found in the human brain. More than a century later, his devoted functional map was incremented by Glasser et al in 2016, using functional nuclear magnetic resonance imaging techniques to propose the existence of 180 functional areas in each hemisphere, based on their cortical thickness, degree of myelination (cortical myelin content), neuronal interconnection, topographic organization, multitask answers, and assessment in their resting state. This opens a huge possibility, through functional neuroanatomy, to understand a little more about normal brain function and its functional impairment in the presence of a disease.

Mecanismos Neurocognitivos de la motivación en el entrenamiento físico / Neurocognitive mechanisms of motivation in physical training

La inactividad física y el sedentarismo son en la actualidad un problema de salud global que preocupa por su crecimiento sistemático. Provoca consecuencias sanita-rias en los adultos y, con un incremento alarmante, en la población más joven. Por el contrario, la realización periódica de actividad física ha demostrado beneficios a la salud física, neurológica y mental. A pesar de los incontrovertibles datos sobre sus efectos positivos, menos de la mitad de la población mundial se ejercita regularmen-te. El objetivo de este trabajo es realizar una breve descripción sobre los mecanismos neurocognitivos que se encuentran implicados en los procesos de motivación, en es-pecial los que se vinculan a la actividad física, con la finalidad de presentar una serie de recomendaciones pragmáticas para aumentar la adherencia a programas de en-trenamiento físico, basados en técnicas de la psicología cognitiva y analizados desde la perspectiva neurocognitiva.

Physical inactivity and sedentary lifestyle are currently a global health problem that concerns because of its systematic growth, the health consequences it causes for adults and, in alarming escalation, also for the younger population. On the contrary, regu-lar physical activity has shown benefits to physical, neurological and mental health. Despite the incontrovertible information about its positive effects, less than half of the world's population excercises regularly. This work's objective is to make a brief description of the neurocognitive mechanisms that are involved in the motivational processes, especially those linked to physical activity, in order to present pragmatic recommendations that increase adherence to physical training programs, based on techniques of cognitive psychology and analyzed from a neurocognitive perspective.

Cerebro y procesos cognitivos bajo la influencia de la música de orquesta sinfónica / Brain and cognitive processes under the influence of symphonic orchestra music / Cérebro e processos cognitivos sob a influência da música da orquestra sinfônica

Esta investigación tuvo como objetivo determinar las características funcionales del cerebro de intérpretes y oyentes de música sinfónica. Para esto, se desarrolló una investigación cuantitativa con diseño comparativo-correlacional. Participaron 120 personas distribuidas en 3 grupos: intérpretes, oyentes y controles; siendo equiparables en edad, género y escolaridad. Los intérpretes presentaron déficit en fluidez verbal de tipo semántico y dificultades en planeación, sin embargo, tuvieron mayor desempeño en tareas de memoria visual, atención, y velocidad de procesamiento de la información, en comparación con quienes sólo oyeron la música y más aún con quienes no se expusieron a este tipo de música. Por su parte los oyentes presentaron compromiso en comprensión de la información y mejor memoria verbal, así como organización de tipo ejecutivo y fluidez fonológica. Así, la influencia de la música sinfónica sobre el funcionamiento de los procesos neurocognitivos varía y depende de la forma en que se exponga el individuo a ésta, lo que también determinará el efecto que se tendrá sobre sufuncionamiento cerebral, puesto que, para algunas funciones cerebrales, interpretar el instrumento musical aumenta y mejora el desempeño del proceso cognitivo, y para otras funciones, es el oír la música, y no el interpretar el instrumento, lo que favorece un mayor desempeño. Independientemente de esto, sedeterminó, que hay una ventaja en los resultados de la función cerebral en aquellas personas que se exponen a este tipo de música orquestal, ya sea como parte de la orquesta o como oyente de la melodía.

This research aimed to determine the functional characteristics of the brain of interpreters and people who listen to symphonic music. With this in mind, a quantitative research with comparative-correlational design was developed. 120 people participated in three different groups: interpreters, listeners and controls; being comparable in age, gender and schooling. The interpreters presented deficits in verbal fluency of semantic type and difficulties in planning, however, they have greater performance in tasks of visual memory, attention, and speed of information processing, in comparison with those who only listen to music and even more with those who are not exposed to this type of music. The listeners presented a commitment to understanding information and better verbal memory, as well as an organization of executive type and phonological fluency. Thus, the influence of symphonic music, on the functioning of neurocognitive processes, varies and depends on the way in which the individual is exposed to it, and this will determine the effect that will be had on their brain functioning, since, for some brain functions, interpreting the musical instrument increases and improves the performance of the cognitive process, and for other functions, it is to hear the music, and not to interpret the instrument, which favors a greater performance. Regardless of this, it was determined that there is an advantage in the results of brain function in those people who are exposed to this type of orchestral music, either as part of the orchestra or as a listener of the melody.

O objetivo desta pesquisa foi determinar as características funcionais do cérebro de intérpretes e ouvintes de música sinfônica. Para isso, foi desenvolvida uma pesquisa quantitativa de tipo comparativo-correlacional. 120 pessoas participaram e foram distribuídas em 3 grupos: intérpretes, ouvintes e controles; sendo iguais em idade, sexo e escolaridade. Os intérpretes apresentaram deficiência em fluência verbal semântica e dificuldades em planejamento de atividades, no entanto, têm maior desempenho em tarefas de memória visual, atenção e velocidade de processamento de informações, em comparação com aqueles que só ouvem a música e ainda mais com aqueles que não estão expostos a esse tipo de música. Por sua vez, os ouvintes apresentaram dificuldade em compreensão e melhor memória verbal, bem como uma organização do tipo executivo e fluência fonológica. Assim, a influência da música sinfónica sobre o funcionamento dos processos neurocognitivos varia e depende de como o indivíduo é exposto a ela, e isso vai determinar o efeito que terá sobre sua função cerebral, toda vez que, para algumas funções cerebrais interpretar os instrumentos musicais aumenta e melhora o desempenho do processamento cognitivo, e para outras funções, é ouvir a música, e não tocar o instrumento, o que favorece um melhor desempenho. Independentemente disso, determinou-se que há uma vantagem nos resultados da função cerebral naquelas pessoas que estão expostas a esse tipo de música orquestral, seja como parte da orquestra ou como ouvinte da melodia.

As consequências da restrição de crescimento intrauterino na estrutura e fluxo sanguíneo cerebral: uma revisão da literatura / The consequences of fetal growth restriction on brain structure and blood flow: a review

A Restrição de Crescimento Fetal (RCF) é definida como uma incapacidade do feto em alcançar seu potencial de crescimento, afeta 5-10% das gestações e está associada à alta morbimortalidade fetal e neonatal, principalmente a danos neurológicos. O objetivo dessa revisão foi levantar os estudos sobre a alteração cerebral nos fetos com RCF que possam estar relacionados aos danos neurológicos pós-natais já estabelecidos. Nesses fetos, há um crescimento desigual das estruturas cerebrais e reconhece-se que, na dependência de hipoxemia crônica e privação de nutrientes provocados pela insuficiência placentária, o feto tende a preferenciar o fluxo sanguíneo para o cérebro em detrimento de outros órgãos. Os resultados dessa revisão sugerem que o efeito protetor do aumento da perfusão sanguínea cerebral é diferente em cada estágio de deterioração fetal, propondo uma ordem hierárquica na proteção das diferentes funções/áreas cerebrais, e quanto mais severo esse acometimento, maiores mudanças estruturais cerebrais o feto apresentará.(AU)

Fetal growth restriction is defined as an inability of the fetus to reach its growth potential, affects 5-10% of pregnancies and is associated with high fetal and neonatal morbidity and mortality, mainly neurological damage. The aim of this review was to investigate brain alterations in fetus with fetal growth restriction that may be related to the already established postnatal neurological damage. In these fetus there is an uneven growth of the brain structures and it is recognized that in dependence on chronic hypoxemia and nutrient deprivation caused by placental insufficiency, the fetus tends to prefer the blood flow to the brain in detriment of other organs. The results of this review suggest that the protective effect of increased cerebral blood perfusion is different at each stage of fetal deterioration, proposing a hierarchical order in the protection of the different brain functions / areas and more severe this involvement, bigger structural changes the fetus will present.(AU)

Revelaciones de la neurociencia ponen en estado de alerta al gerente o directivo / Revelations of neuroscience put the manager or manager on alert

El quehacer diario de todo Gerente o Directivo se fundamenta en las funciones cognitivas de orden superior que éstos desempeñan. Hoy gracias a la Neurociencia sabemos que dichas funciones cognitivas, son el producto final de una serie de actividades neuronales, pero, ¿quién y cómo se activan? Éstas, junto con otras interrogantes, son las que trata de dilucidar la Neurociencia. En este artículo veremos cómo en esa búsqueda de respuestas, la Neurociencia se ha topado con un hallazgo interesante, el Inconsciente. Veremos cómo científicos de la talla de Libet, Haynes y otros, nos demuestran científicamente que en toda toma de decisión, el inconsciente selecciona una decisión y posteriormente el consciente se entera de ella. Por otro lado, el Dr. Froufe nos habla de la "mente oculta", que al unirla con el Inconsciente de la Neurociencia se formula una alerta, no desestimable, en una de nuestras funciones cotidianas, la toma de decisiones.

The daily work of our Directing Manager is based on the higher order cognitive functions they play. Today, thanks to Neuroscience we know that these cognitive functions are the end product of a series of neural activity, but who and how are activated? these along with other questions are trying to elucidate Neuroscience. In this article we will see how in the search of this answers, Neuroscience has run into an interesting finding, the Unconscious. We will see how scientists of the stature of Libet, Haynes and others, we demonstrate scientifically that in all decision-making, the unconscious select a decision and subsequently, the conscious learns this. On the other hand, Dr. Froufe, speaks of the "hidden mind" that to uniting with the Unconscious of the Neuroscience an alert is made, not negligible, in one of our daily functions, the decision making.

Cómo se representa la información fonológica en el cerebro: una explicación en términos de las redes relacionales / Representation of phonological information in the brain: a n explanation in terms of relational networks

Gracias a la afasiología y a la neuroanatomía sabemos que hay dos sistemas fonológicos: la percepción fonológica (en el área de Wernicke) y la producción fonológica (en el área de Broca). Por otro lado, gracias a la lingüística sabemos que el sistema léxico-gramatical conecta los significados con la fonología. A partir de todo esto se espera mostrar que las redes relacionales permiten representar cómo se conectan los dos sistemas fonológicos, el léxico-gramatical y el semántico.

Thanks to aphasiology and neuroanatomy, it is known that there are two phonological systems: phonological perception (in Wernicke´s area) and phonological production (in Broca’s area). On the other hand, thanks to Linguistics, we know that the lexicogrammatical system connects meanings with phonology. On this basis, this report aims at showing the way in which relational networks allow us to represent how the two phonological systems, lexico-grammatical and semantics, are connected.

How semantic deficits in schizotypy help understand language and thought disorders in schizophrenia: a systematic and integrative review / Como déficits semânticos na esquizotipia auxiliam a compreender transtornos da linguagem e do pensamento na esquizofrenia: uma revisão sistemática e integrativa

Introduction: Disorders of thought are psychopathological phenomena commonly present in schizophrenia and seem to result from deficits of semantic processing. Schizotypal personality traits consist of tendencies to think and behave that are qualitatively similar to schizophrenia, with greater vulnerability to such disorder. This study reviewed the literature about semantic processing deficits in samples of individuals with schizotypal traits and discussed the impact of current knowledge upon the comprehension of schizophrenic thought disorders. Studies about the cognitive performance of healthy individuals with schizotypal traits help understand the semantic deficits underlying psychotic thought disorders with the advantage of avoiding confounding factors usually found in samples of individuals with schizophrenia, such as the use of antipsychotics and hospitalizations. Methods: A search for articles published in Portuguese or English within the last 10 years on the databases MEDLINE, Web of Science, PsycInfo, LILACS and Biological Abstracts was conducted, using the keywords semantic processing, schizotypy and schizotypal personality disorder. Results: The search retrieved 44 manuscripts, out of which 11 were firstly chosen. Seven manuscripts were additionally included after reading these papers. Conclusion: The great majority of the included studies showed that schizotypal subjects might exhibit semantic processing deficits. They help clarify about the interfaces between cognitive, neurophysiological and neurochemical mechanisms underlying not only thought disorders, but also healthy human mind's creativity (AU)

Introdução: Transtornos do pensamento são fenômenos psicopatológicos comumente presentes na esquizofrenia e parecem resultar de déficits do processamento semântico. Traços esquizotípicos de personalidade consistem de tendências de pensamento e comportamento qualitativamente semelhantes às observadas na esquizofrenia, além de uma maior vulnerabilidade para esse transtorno. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo revisar a literatura sobre déficits de processamento semântico em amostras de indivíduos com traços esquizotípicos, discutindo o impacto desse conjunto de conhecimentos sobre a compreensão dos transtornos de pensamento na esquizofrenia. Estudos sobre o desempenho cognitivo de indivíduos saudáveis que apresentam traços esquizotípicos são úteis na elucidação dos déficits semânticos subjacentes aos transtornos psicóticos do pensamento, com a vantagem adicional de evitar fatores confundidores normalmente presentes em amostras clínicas de indivíduos esquizofrênicos, tais como uso de antipsicóticos e hospitalizações. Métodos: Foi realizada uma busca por artigos publicados em português ou inglês nos últimos 10 anos nas bases de dados MEDLINE, Web of Science, PsycINFO, LILACS e Biological Abstracts, utilizando-se as palavras-chave semantic processing, schizotypy e schizotypal personality disorder. Resultados: A pesquisa resultou em 44 manuscritos, dos quais 11 foram inicialmente selecionados. A partir da leitura desses artigos, outros sete foram adicionalmente incluídos. Conclusão: A grande maioria dos estudos incluídos mostrou que indivíduos esquizotípicos podem apresentar déficits de processamento semântico, auxiliando a compreender as interfaces cognitiva, neurofisiológica e neuroquímica subjacentes não só aos distúrbios pensamento, mas também à criatividade na mente humana saudável (AU)

Cerebro y lenguaje / Brain and language

Language is the most important way of communication of the human being. It is a complex and dynamic conventional system of signs that can be oral or written. Language is a functional system that depends on the simultaneous work of different areas of the brain, both cortical and subcortical, that are located primarily in the left hemisphere. There are several variables that have an effect on the representation of language in the brain, such as laterality, sex, scholarship and age. The areas and tracts related to language can be grouped in two pathways, dorsal and ventral. The first is related to expression and the second to comprehension. Aphasia takes place when areas and tracts of the brain related to language are damaged. (AU)

Áreas del cerebro que participan en el proceso de lectura literal en sordos señantes: un caso de estudio / Brain areas associated with the literal reading process in deaf users of sign language: a case of study

El proceso enseñanza o de aprendizaje de la lectura como segunda lengua para la población sorda señante plantea varias interrogantes que buscan dar respuesta al bajo desempeño observado en el desarrollo de dicha actividad cognitiva. En esta situación se reconocen factores psicológicos, neurocognitivos y contextuales de los cuales depende el éxito del proceso. La presente investigación busca describir las zonas del cerebro que se activan cuando un usuario de una lengua ágrafa realiza una lectura literal en su segunda lengua. Se plantea un enfoque cualitativo, de tipo descriptivo, a través de un estudio de caso único. Para la recolección de la información se empleó una electroencefalografía cuantitativa–mapeo cerebral. El comportamiento del registro durante toda la aplicación presentó una variación significativa que coincide con el lóbulo temporal, específicamente en las áreas de asociación auditiva. Al no existir huellas mnémicas con información fonológica, no se establece una relación grafema–fonema, es decir, no se evidencia una transformación de la palabra escrita en la representación fonológica del sonido de la misma como vía para acceder al léxico mental. Estos datos fonológicos se han remplazado por una información visoespacial que se alimenta directamente de la percepción visual, o bien, indirectamente, por medio de la generación de imágenes visuales.

The teaching or learning process of reading as second language for deaf population, who are users of the language of signs, is permeated by several questions that seek to answer the low performance observed in this cognitive activity. In this activity, there are recognized psychological, neurocognitive and environmental factors, which are vital for the success of the process. The research aims to describe the areas of the brain that activate when a user of an illiterate language performs a literal reading in his/her second language. It is set up based on a qualitative approach, with a descriptive type, through a single case study, using for the collection of information a quantitative electroencephalography or cerebral mapping. The behaviour of the record throughout the application, presented a remarkable change that matches with the temporal lobe, areas of hearing association. In the absence of memory traces with phonological information, there is not a grapheme–phoneme relationship, that is to say, there is no evidence of a transformation of the written word in the phonological representation of it as a way to access the mental lexicon. These phonological data have been replaced by optical–space information which is directly fed from visual perception or indirectly fed from the generation of visual imaging.

Hormonas, cerebro y conducta: notas para la práctica de la Psicología en la Endocrinología / Hormones, brain and behavior: notes on the psychology practice in the field of Endocrinology

Las prácticas de los psicólogos en el campo de la Endocrinología y las de los propios endocrinólogos, requieren un mínimo de conocimientos sobre los efectos conductuales no endocrinos de las hormonas. La temporalidad es un concepto clave en Neurobiología, hecho que puede observarse con claridad en el efecto de las hormonas sobre la conducta, al tratarse de acciones moduladas por el período de maduración del sistema nervioso en que se ejercen. El mecanismo neural que facilita la ocurrencia de estas acciones en el tiempo es la plasticidad cerebral. Las hormonas, en su condición de factores epigenéticos, influyen en la conducta mediante los procesos de plasticidad, y provocan dos efectos principales: el organizador y el activador. El primero se refiere a la capacidad de las hormonas de influir en la citoarquitectura y estructura del cerebro de manera permanente durante el desarrollo, desde el período fetal hasta el final de la adolescencia, aunque algunos estudios sugieren que este efecto se mantiene más allá del período de la pubertad. El activador se relaciona con la activación de células diana para facilitar conductas en contextos específicos. Se trata de influencias transitorias, puntuales, que dependen de la concentración de las hormonas en cada instante. Solo conociendo la compleja relación entre el sustrato neural, las condiciones hormonales y el grado de maduración del sistema nervioso en general, y del cerebro en particular, se pueden diseñar estrategias terapéuticas correctas. El desconocimiento de estas interrelaciones lleva al riesgo de trabajar solo con la subjetividad del paciente y desconocer sus potencialidades y limitaciones(AU)

The practice of psychologists in the field of endocrinology and that of the endocrinologists as such require a minimum level of knowledge on the non-endocrine behavioral effects of hormones. Temporality is a key concept in neurobiology, a fact that can also be clearly observed in the effect of hormones on behavior, since it has to do with actions modulated by the period of maturation of the nervous system. The neural mechanism facilitating the occurrence of these actions in time is the brain plasticity. Hormones as epigenetic factors influence the behavior through the plasticity processes and then cause two main effects, that is, the organizing and the activating ones. The organizing effect refers to the hormone capacity of influencing the cytoarchitecture and the structure of the brain in a permanent way during the development from the fetal phase to the end of adolescence, although some studies suggest that this effect is kept beyond the pubertal period. The activating effect relates to the activation of target cells to facilitate behaviors under specific settings. It is about transient and point influences that are dependent on the concentration of hormones at a moment. Knowing the complex relation between neural substrate, the hormonal conditions and the level of maturation of the nervous system in general and of the brain in particular makes it possible to design correct therapeutic strategies. The lack of knowledge about these interrelations leads to the risk of working just with the patient's subjectivity while ignoring his/her potentialities and limitations(AU)

Influencia de las hormonas sexuales en mujeres con esclerosis múltiple durante la memoria de trabajo y la activación cerebral medida con mapeo electroencefalográfico / Influence of sex hormones in women with MS during the working memory and brain activation measured by electroencephalogram mappin

La Esclerosis Múltiple es una enfermedad inflamatoria desmielinizante del Sistema Nervioso Central, que se presenta con más frecuencia en mujeres, lo cual sugiere que las hormonas sexuales parecen modular la manifestación de la sintomatología. La actividad electroencefalografíca no ha sido evaluada en mujeres con Esclerosis Múltiple durante el procesamiento de Memoria de Trabajo y su estado hormonal. Los registros se realizaron en las fases folicular y lútea del ciclo menstrual de manera simultánea la tarea cognitiva y el electroencefalograma, además se correlacionaron con los niveles hormonales. La fase lútea mostró una ejecución mejor con un mayor número de categorías alcanzadas (p<0.004), un menor número de errores perseverativos (p<0.003) y un mayor número de ensayos para alcanzar una categoría (p<0.011), se asoció con un aumento de la actividad de Theta (p<0.018) y Alfa 2 (p<0.000). El 92 por ciento de la variabilidad en el número de ensayos de la tarea, fue explicada por la actividad de Theta y Alfa 2, Hormona Luteinizante y Estrona en la fase folicular, en la fase lútea el 90 por ciento de la variabilidad fue explicada por la actividad de Theta, Hormona Luteinizante, Progesterona y Estradiol. La Memoria de trabajo mejora en la fase lútea del ciclo menstrual, sugiriendo que la progesterona parece facilitar actividad de Theta.

Multiple Sclerosis is an inflammatory demyelinating CNS disease that occurs most often in women, suggesting that sex hormones appear to modulate the manifestation of symptoms. EEG activity has not been evaluated in women with MS during the processing of MT and hormonal status. The recordings were made in the follicular and luteal phases of the menstrual cycle a simultaneous cognitive task and EEG also were correlated with hormone levels. The luteal phase showed a better performance with a greater number of categories achieved (p <0.004), fewer perseverative errors (p <0.003) and greater number of trials to reach a category (p <0.011) was associated with increased theta activity (p <0.018) and Alpha 2 (p <0.000). 92 percent of the variability in the number of trials of the task was explained by the activity of Theta and Alpha 2, LH and estrone levels in the follicular phase, luteal phase, 90 percent of the variability was explained by the activity of theta, LH, progesterone and stradiol. The MT improvement in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, suggesting that progesterone seems to facilitate Theta activity.

Estudo dos ventrículos cerebrais por ultrassonografia, na criança normal, nascida a termo, de 1 a 6 meses / Sonographic evaluation of cerebral ventricular system in healthy, full term infants aged 1-6 months

OBJETIVO: Estudo dos ventrículos cerebrais por ultrassonografia, com o objetivo de estabelecer de forma simplificada parâmetros para diagnóstico das dilatações ventriculares leves. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: Foram estudadas, prospectivamente, 105 crianças, normais, nascidas a termo, com um total de 181 exames realizados, mensalmente até os 6 meses, através da observação de dados morfológicos e medidas. As medidas efetuadas foram: índice ventrículo/hemisfério, diâmetro anteroposterior do corno anterior e do quarto ventrículo. RESULTADOS: Obtiveram-se média, desviopadrão e percentis de normalidade das medidas estabelecidas, em cada faixa etária. A pesquisa de halo anecoico nos dois terços posteriores do plexo coroide em plano coronal VI, para avaliação dos cornos temporal/posterior, foi ausente, e o terceiro ventrículo mostrou-se como uma fenda anecoica, menor que 1 mm, em plano coronal V em todas as crianças do estudo. CONCLUSÃO: Os achados morfológicos relacionados aos cornos temporal/posterior e ao terceiro ventrículo, associados ao percentil 95 das medidas como limite superior da normalidade, podem ser utilizados para diagnóstico simplificado de dilatações ventriculares leves.

OBJECTIVE: Study of the cerebral ventricular system by ultrasonography with the objective of establishing parameters for the diagnosis of mild ventricular dilatation. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Prospective study of 105 healthy, full term infants aged 1-6 months, submitted to monthly scans for morphological data evaluation and measurements of ventricle/ hemisphere ratio, and anteroposterior diameter of frontal horn and fourth ventricle. RESULTS: Normality mean, standard deviation and percentile were obtained for each age range. Negative results were observed in the search for anechoic halo surrounding the posterior two thirds of the choroid plexus on coronal section VI for evaluation of temporal/posterior horns, and the third ventricle was seen as an anechoic cleft < 1 mm on coronal section V in all of the evaluated infants. CONCLUSION: Sonographic findings related to temporal/posterior horns and third ventricle associated with the 95th percentile as upper limit of normality can be utilized as parameters for a simplified diagnosis of mild ventricular dilatation.

Seria a moralidade determinada pelo cérebro? Neurônios-espelhos, empatia e neuromoralidade / Does the brain have anything to do with morality? Mirror neurons, empathy and neuromorality

O objetivo do artigo é analisar o impacto do progresso das neurociências, em particular da descoberta dos neurônios-espelhos, sobre as teses referentes à moralidade. Analisamos as tentativas atuais de naturalizar a moralidade baseadas nessa descoberta, a partir da qual se reduzem os princípios éticos a propriedades biológicas da natureza humana. Investigamos como os estudos em psicologia sobre a função da empatia, da capacidade de se colocar na perspectiva do outro e da simulação corporificada ganharam nova credibilidade, poder explicativo e, sobretudo, relevância teórica por causa da descoberta dos sistemas de neurônios-espelhos. Como parte desse movimento, observamos novas tentativas nas pesquisas atuais em estabelecer conexões funcionais e possivelmente causais entre o cérebro e o pensamento moral. Consideramos, numa perspectiva crítica, essas tentativas e a busca renovada pela formulação de uma ética naturalizada.

This paper aims to consider the impact of progress in the neurosciences, in particular the discovery of mirror neurons, on the study of morality. It analyzes the current attempts at naturalizing moral principles based on this discovery, reducing human morality to basic biological properties. It explores how psychological studies on empathy, perspective taking and embodied simulation have gained new credibility, explanatory power, and overall theoretical "traction" because of the discovery of mirror neuron systems. As part of this movement, there are now renewed attempts by researchers at establishing functional links, possibly causal links, between brain and moral thought. These attempts and the renewed quest toward naturalizing ethics are critically considered.

Los potenciales pre-motores y el libre albedrío / Pre-motor potentials and free wil

En este trabajo se analizan las experiencias de Libet acerca de los potenciales motores "espontáneos", o potenciales pre-motores, y su relación con la noción filosófica de "libre albedrío". Libet no deduce de sus experiencias la inexistencia del libre albedrío, sino que afirma que éste puede ejercerse por intermedio del "veto" consciente de una acción intentada. Postula la existencia de un "campo mental consciente" que no puede ser estudiado por medios físicos. El planteamiento antropológico del problema continúa siendo el mismo de la época de Aristóteles, porque se trata de un planteo filosófico, y no de ciencia natural. En cuanto al libre albedrío y a su relación con el cuerpo, continuamos inmersos en el misterio. El libre albedrío no es "localizable", ni en la epifisis, como pensaba Descartes, ni en la corteza pre-motora, según las experiencias de Libet. Pero podemos coincidir con el filósofo Jaime Balmes cuando dice que "El sentido íntimo nos asegura que somos libres. El argumento que se funda en el testimonio del sentido íntimo es tan concluyente que no necesita para nada del auxilio de otro". Se trata del testimonio del sentido común, de la evidencia inmediata.

This paper analyzes Libet's studies on the "spontaneus" motor potentials, or pre-motor potentials, and their relationship with the philosophic concept of "free will". Libet does not conclude from his studies that free will does not exist. Rather, he affirms that it may be exercised through the conscious "veto" of an intended act. He posits the existence of a "conscious mental field" that cannot be studied trough physical study methods. The ongoing anthropological issue is -as was true in Aristotle's day- a philosophical issue, not an issue of the natural sciences. And the issue of freewill and its relationship with the body continues to be a mystery. Free will is not to be found in the epiphysis, as postulated by Descartes, not in the pre-motor cortex, as per the studies of Libet. But we can agree with Balmes, the philosopher, who states that "The intimate sense assures us that we are free. The reasoning that is based on the testimony of the intimate sense is so conclusive that it needs no other assistance". This is the testimony of common sense, of the readily available evidence.