ABSTRACT
Resumen La malaria asociada al embarazo es un evento poco estudiado en América Latina. Los abundantes trabajos sobre el problema en África llevan a pensar que esta infección genera una modulación de la respuesta inmune y alteraciones en el ambiente placentario, eventos cruciales para el adecuado desarrollo del feto y el neonato. La inmunidad contra Plasmodium spp es compleja porque involucra diversos factores que amplían las posibilidades de desenlaces, los que finalmente conducen a los diferentes fenotipos clínicos de la enfermedad. Uno de los desenlaces inmunológicos en infecciones por Plasmodium spp es la modulación de la respuesta inmune hacía un perfil regulador. Esta regulación inducida por la infección malárica resulta ventajosa para la persistencia del parásito en el hospedero, y adicionalmente, podría generar eventos adversos en la respuesta inmune general de los individuos infectados. El objetivo de esta revisión es abordar los mecanismos con los cuales Plasmodium spp modula la respuesta inmune del hospedero y exponer las consecuencias de las infecciones maláricas en el contexto madre-neonato.
Pregnancy-associated malaria is an understudied event in Latin America. Most works about malaria in pregnancy have been conducted in Africa. These studies indicate that the infection generates immune response modulation and alterations in the placental environment, key factors for the proper development of the fetus and neonate. Immunity against Plasmodium spp is complex since involves several factors that increase the possible infection outcomes. One of these immunological outcomes is the immune response modulation towards a regulatory profile, which is advantageous for the persistence of the parasite in the host; additionally, it could generate adverse events in the general immune response of infected individuals. The objective of this review is to address the Plasmodium spp mechanisms of modulation in the host immune response and expose the consequences of malarial infections in the mother-neonate context.
Subject(s)
Humans , Female , Pregnancy , Infant, Newborn , Plasmodium/immunology , Pregnancy Complications, Parasitic/immunology , Immunomodulation/physiology , Malaria/immunology , Placenta/immunology , Placenta/parasitology , Plasmodium/physiology , Host-Parasite Interactions/immunology , Immune System/immunologyABSTRACT
Abstract The aim of this study was to identify Plasmodium spp. in blood samples from nonhuman primates (NHPs) in the state of Maranhão, using classical and alternative techniques for examination of human malaria. A total of 161 blood samples from NHPs were analyzed: 141 from captive animals at a Wildlife Screening Center (CETAS) and 20 from free-living animals in a private reserve. The techniques used were microscopy, rapid diagnostic test (RDT), Indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) and molecular techniques (semi-nested PCR, quantitative real-time PCR and LAMP). Two serological methods (dot-ELISA and indirect ELISA) were also standardized with rhoptry protein-soluble antigen of P. falciparum and P. berghei. Trophozoite forms of Plasmodium sp. were identified on slides from five different animals. No samples were positive through RDT and LAMP. Four samples were seropositive for P. malariae through IFAT. The samples showed low reactivity to ELISA. Plasmodium sp. was detected in 34.16% (55/161) of the samples using qPCR based on the 18S rRNA gene. After sequencing, two samples showed 100% identityl to P. malariae, one showed 97% identity to Plasmodium sp. ZOOBH and one showed 99% identity to P. falciparum . PCR was shown to be the most sensitive technique for diagnosing Plasmodium in NHP samples.
Resumo Neste estudo objetivamos identificar Plasmodium spp. em amostras sangue de primatas não humanos (PNH) do estado do Maranhão, utilizando técnicas clássicas e alternativas para o exame da malária humana. Foram analisadas 161 amostras de sangue de PNH, sendo 141 de CETAS (cativeiro) e 20 de reserva particular (vida livre), utilizando microscopia, teste de diagnóstico rápido (RDT), imunofluorescência indireta (IFI) e técnicas moleculares (semi-nested PCR, PCR em tempo real quantitativo e LAMP). Dois métodos sorológicos (dot-ELISA e ELISA indireto) também foram padronizados com antígenos solúveis de roptrias de P. falciparum e P. berghei. Formas trofozoíticas de Plasmodium sp. foram identificadas em lâminas de cinco animais diferentes. Nenhuma amostra foi positiva em TDR e LAMP. Quatro amostras foram soropositivas para P. malariae na IFI. Os soros de PNH mostraram baixa reatividade pelo ELISA indireto. Plasmodium sp. foi detectado em 34,16% (55/161) das amostras utilizando a qPCR baseada no gene 18S rRNA. No sequenciamento, duas amostras mostraram identidade com P. malariae (100%), uma com Plasmodium sp. ZOOBH (97%) e uma com P. falciparum (99%). A PCR mostrou ser a técnica mais sensível para diagnósticos de Plasmodium em amostras de PNH.
Subject(s)
Animals , Male , Plasmodium/genetics , Plasmodium/immunology , Platyrrhini/parasitology , Malaria/veterinary , Antibodies, Protozoan/blood , RNA, Ribosomal, 18S/blood , DNA, Protozoan/blood , Fluorescent Antibody Technique, Indirect , Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction , Malaria/diagnosis , Malaria/parasitologyABSTRACT
INTRODUÇÃO: A malária é uma das doenças infecciosas de maior incidência e que mais leva a óbito no mundo. Os medicamentos disponíveis são capazes de combater o parasita no ciclo intraeritrocítico, no entanto há cepas resistentes ao tratamento com quinolinas e temisininas. Além disso, os medicamentos em uso clínico não eliminam as formas sexuadas do parasita, responsáveis pela transmissão, nem os hipnozoítos, fase hepática latente causadora das recidivas da doença. Em virtude disso, é necessário identificar novos fármacos antimaláricos. Dentre as classes de moléculas com potencial terapêutico antimalárico, os complexos com metais de transição se destacam como possíveis candidatos...
Subject(s)
Humans , Malaria/diagnosis , Malaria/epidemiology , Malaria/prevention & control , Malaria/transmission , Plasmodium/growth & development , Plasmodium/immunology , Plasmodium/microbiology , Plasmodium/parasitology , Plasmodium/pathogenicityABSTRACT
Asymptomatic Plasmodium infection carriers represent a major threat to malaria control worldwide as they are silent natural reservoirs and do not seek medical care. There are no standard criteria for asymptomaticPlasmodium infection; therefore, its diagnosis relies on the presence of the parasite during a specific period of symptomless infection. The antiparasitic immune response can result in reducedPlasmodium sp. load with control of disease manifestations, which leads to asymptomatic infection. Both the innate and adaptive immune responses seem to play major roles in asymptomatic Plasmodiuminfection; T regulatory cell activity (through the production of interleukin-10 and transforming growth factor-β) and B-cells (with a broad antibody response) both play prominent roles. Furthermore, molecules involved in the haem detoxification pathway (such as haptoglobin and haeme oxygenase-1) and iron metabolism (ferritin and activated c-Jun N-terminal kinase) have emerged in recent years as potential biomarkers and thus are helping to unravel the immune response underlying asymptomatic Plasmodium infection. The acquisition of large data sets and the use of robust statistical tools, including network analysis, associated with well-designed malaria studies will likely help elucidate the immune mechanisms responsible for asymptomatic infection.
Subject(s)
Humans , Asymptomatic Infections , Antigens, Protozoan/immunology , Carrier State/immunology , Malaria, Falciparum/immunology , Malaria, Vivax/immunology , Plasmodium/immunology , Adaptive Immunity/physiology , Biomarkers , Carrier State/parasitology , Disease Reservoirs/parasitology , Ferritins/immunology , Haptoglobins/immunology , Heme Oxygenase-1/immunology , Immunity, Innate/physiology , /immunology , JNK Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases/immunology , Malaria, Falciparum/prevention & control , Malaria, Vivax/prevention & control , Parasitemia/immunology , Plasmodium/isolation & purification , Transforming Growth Factor beta/immunologyABSTRACT
The states that make up the Legal Amazon Region, which include the state of Maranhão, account for 99% of registered cases of human malaria in Brazil. It is also believed that transmission of malaria from nonhuman primates (NHP) to humans occurs in this region, because of current reports of seroepidemiological results from samples from humans and NHP coexisting in the same areas. This study aimed to make morphological, serological and molecular diagnoses of Plasmodium spp. in neotropical primates on the island of São Luís, state of Maranhão, Brazil. The diagnostic techniques used were optical microscopy, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and the indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA). From June 2009 to April 2010, 70 NHP were sampled: 50 at the Wild Animal Screening Center (CETAS), located in the municipality of São Luís and 20 free-living individuals that were caught in a private reserve located in the municipality of São Jose de Ribamar, state of Maranhão. Under an optical microscope, 140 slides (two from each animal) were evaluated and five animals (7.1%) were found to be positive. IFA did not detect anti-Plasmodium spp. From PCR on the 70 animals sampled, amplified Plasmodium spp. products were observed in 13 samples, of which eight (61.5%) were from free-living animals and five (38.5%) were from animals at CETAS.
Os Estados que compõem a Amazônia Legal, entre eles o Estado do Maranhão, respondem a 99% dos casos registrados de malária humana no Brasil. Também se acredita que nessa região ocorra a transmissão de malária de primatas não humanos (PNH) para humanos, devido a relatos atuais de resultados soroepidemiológicos de amostras de humanos e PNH que coexistem nas mesmas áreas. O presente estudo objetivou realizar o diagnóstico morfológico, sorológico e molecular de Plasmodium spp. em primatas neotropicais na Ilha de São Luís, Estado do Maranhão, Brasil. Foram utilizadas como técnicas de diagnóstico: a microscopia de luz, a reação em cadeia pela polimerase (PCR) e a imunofluorescência indireta (RIFI). No período de junho de 2009 a abril de 2010, foram amostrados 70 PNH, sendo 50 provenientes do Centro de Triagem de Animais Silvestres (CETAS), localizado no município de São Luís, e 20 de vida livre, capturados em reserva particular localizada no município de São José de Ribamar, Estado do Maranhão. Foram avaliadas pela microscopia de luz 140 lâminas (duas de cada animal), das quais cinco animais (7,1%) foram positivos. Pela RIFI não se detectou anticorpos anti-Plasmodium spp. Pela PCR, dos 70 animais amostrados, foi possível observar produtos amplificados para Plasmodium spp. em 13 amostras, das quais oito (61,5%) eram de animais de vida livre e cinco (38,5%) de CETAS.
Subject(s)
Animals , Primates , Malaria/veterinary , Plasmodium/immunology , Brazil , Antibodies, Protozoan/blood , Fluorescent Antibody Technique, Indirect , Malaria/diagnosis , Malaria/bloodABSTRACT
O peptídeo sinal é um motivo encontrado, geralmente, na extremidade N-terminal deproteínas e a sua presença determina a entrada na via clássica de transporte intracelular,após a translocação da proteína para o lúmen do retículo endoplasmático. Portanto, apresença ou ausência do peptídeo sinal influencia a função biológica de uma proteína ao serum fator determinante da sua localização subcelular. Como a conservação de função entreproteínas ortólogas é esperada, foi hipotetizado que a localização subcelular e,consequentemente, a presença do peptídeo sinal deveriam, também, se apresentarconservadas. Partindo desta premissa, as predições de peptídeo sinal em proteínasortólogas de cinco espécies de Plasmodium foram analisadas.Predições de peptídeo sinal (SignalP) e informações de ortologia (OrthoMCL-DB)para proteínas de cinco espécies do gênero Plasmodium (Plasmodium falciparum,Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium knowlesi, Plasmodium berguei e Plasmodium yoelii) foramcombinadas em uma estratégia inovadora, visando a identificação de grupos de proteínasortólogas que apresentam predições de peptídeo sinal divergentes (grupos Mistos).
Asproteínas pertencentes a estes grupos foram submetidas a uma análise comparativabaseada na inspeção visual de alinhamentos múltiplos e de modelos gênicos e regiõesgenômicas flanqueadoras da extremidade N-terminal. Novos modelos gênicos foramsugeridos para aquelas proteínas que apresentavam prováveis erros de anotação desequência, especialmente na região N-terminal. Alguns dos novos modelos gênicos foramvalidados por RT-PCR. Os resultados da inspeção visual foram usados para treinar umaMáquina de Suporte de Vetores (Support Vector Machine) com o objetivo de classificargrupos Mistos em: (1) Com erros de anotação ou (2) Sem erros de anotação. O SVM foiaplicado para classificar os grupos Mistos de cinco bancos de dados, montados a partir devinte e duas espécies.Os grupos contendo proteínas com predições de peptídeo sinal divergentesapresentaram uma alta taxa de erros de anotação. Um total de 478 proteínas dePlasmodium foram reanotadas sendo que a maioria apresentou inversões das suaspredições de peptídeo sinal originais, representando um impacto significativo no conjuntofinal de proteínas destinadas à via clássica de transporte intracelular, principalmente paraPlasmodium vivax e Plasmodium yoelii. O classificador baseado nos dados da inspeçãovisual se mostrou bastante flexível e robusto, apresentando uma performance boa econsistente mesmo frente a cenários variados de agrupamento de espécies.A metodologia proposta introduz uma abordagem simples, porém promissora, para arealização de tarefas de curadoria e controle de qualidade dos dados de anotação desequências proteicas em uma escala genômica. Os resultados do classificador definem a base para seu desenvolvimento em uma ferramenta computacional e os resultados dasreanotações em Plasmodium impactarão a busca por novos alvos vacinais equimioterápicos.
Subject(s)
Male , Female , Humans , Malaria/genetics , Peptides/immunology , Plasmodium/immunologyABSTRACT
O peptídeo sinal é um motivo encontrado, geralmente, na extremidade N-terminal deproteínas e a sua presença determina a entrada na via clássica de transporte intracelular,após a translocação da proteína para o lúmen do retículo endoplasmático. Portanto, apresença ou ausência do peptídeo sinal influencia a função biológica de uma proteína ao serum fator determinante da sua localização subcelular. Como a conservação de função entreproteínas ortólogas é esperada, foi hipotetizado que a localização subcelular e,consequentemente, a presença do peptídeo sinal deveriam, também, se apresentarconservadas. Partindo desta premissa, as predições de peptídeo sinal em proteínasortólogas de cinco espécies de Plasmodium foram analisadas.Predições de peptídeo sinal (SignalP) e informações de ortologia (OrthoMCL-DB)para proteínas de cinco espécies do gênero Plasmodium (Plasmodium falciparum,Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium knowlesi, Plasmodium berguei e Plasmodium yoelii) foramcombinadas em uma estratégia inovadora, visando a identificação de grupos de proteínasortólogas que apresentam predições de peptídeo sinal divergentes (grupos Mistos).
Asproteínas pertencentes a estes grupos foram submetidas a uma análise comparativabaseada na inspeção visual de alinhamentos múltiplos e de modelos gênicos e regiõesgenômicas flanqueadoras da extremidade N-terminal. Novos modelos gênicos foramsugeridos para aquelas proteínas que apresentavam prováveis erros de anotação desequência, especialmente na região N-terminal. Alguns dos novos modelos gênicos foramvalidados por RT-PCR. Os resultados da inspeção visual foram usados para treinar umaMáquina de Suporte de Vetores (Support Vector Machine) com o objetivo de classificargrupos Mistos em: (1) Com erros de anotação ou (2) Sem erros de anotação. O SVM foiaplicado para classificar os grupos Mistos de cinco bancos de dados, montados a partir devinte e duas espécies.Os grupos contendo proteínas com predições de peptídeo sinal divergentesapresentaram uma alta taxa de erros de anotação. Um total de 478 proteínas dePlasmodium foram reanotadas sendo que a maioria apresentou inversões das suaspredições de peptídeo sinal originais, representando um impacto significativo no conjuntofinal de proteínas destinadas à via clássica de transporte intracelular, principalmente paraPlasmodium vivax e Plasmodium yoelii. O classificador baseado nos dados da inspeçãovisual se mostrou bastante flexível e robusto, apresentando uma performance boa econsistente mesmo frente a cenários variados de agrupamento de espécies.A metodologia proposta introduz uma abordagem simples, porém promissora, para arealização de tarefas de curadoria e controle de qualidade dos dados de anotação desequências proteicas em uma escala genômica. Os resultados do classificador definem a base para seu desenvolvimento em uma ferramenta computacional e os resultados dasreanotações em Plasmodium impactarão a busca por novos alvos vacinais equimioterápicos.
Subject(s)
Humans , Male , Female , Malaria/genetics , Peptides/immunology , Plasmodium/immunologyABSTRACT
A study was carried out in the area of influence of the Porto Primavera Hydroelectric Power Station, in western São Paulo State, to investigate ecological and epidemiological aspects of malaria in the area and monitor the profile of the anopheline populations following the environmental changes brought about by the construction of the lake. Mosquitoes captured were analyzed by standardized indicator species analysis (ISA) before and during different flooding phases (253 m and 257 m elevations). The local human population was studied by means of parasitological (thin/thick blood smears), molecular (PCR) and serological tests. Serological tests consisted of Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) with synthetic peptides of the circumsporozoite protein (CSP) from classic Plasmodium vivax, P. vivax variants (VK247 and "vivax-like"), P. malariae and P. falciparum and Indirect Immunofluorescence Assay (IFA) with asexual forms of P. vivax, P. malariae and P. falciparum. The results of the entomological survey indicated that, although the Anopheles darlingi population increased after the flooding, the population density remained very low. No malaria, parasite infection or DNA was detected in the inhabitants of the study area. However, there was a low frequency of antibodies against asexual forms and a significant prevalence of antibodies against P. vivax, P. vivax variants, P. falciparum and P. malariae; the presence of these antibodies may result from recent or less recent contact with human or simian Plasmodium (a parallel study in the same area revealed the existence of a sylvatic cycle) ...
Foi realizada pesquisa na área de influência do lago da Usina Hidrelétrica de Porto Primavera, região oeste do Estado de São Paulo, para estudar aspectos ecológicos e epidemiológicos da malária na localidade e acompanhar o perfil das populações de anofelinos frente às mudanças decorrentes do impacto ambiental pela formação do lago. Mosquitos capturados foram analisados pelo Índice de Abundância de Espécies Padronizado (IAEP), antes e durante o enchimento do reservatório (cotas 253 e 257 m). A população humana local foi estudada por meio de teste parasitológico (gota espessa e esfregaço sangüíneo), testes moleculares (PCR) e testes sorológicos. A sorologia consistiu na reação de ELISA com peptídeos sintéticos correspondentes à porção repetitiva da proteína circumsporozoíta (CSP) de Plasmodium vivax clássico, e suas variantes VK247 e "vivax-like", P. malariae e P. falciparum; e reação de Imunofluorescência Indireta (RIFI) com formas assexuadas de P. vivax, P. malariae e P. falciparum. Os resultados do estudo entomológico indicaram que, embora a população de Anopheles darlingi tenha aumentando após o enchimento, permaneceu em baixa densidade. Não foi detectada malária nem a presença de parasitos ou de DNA parasitário nos habitantes estudados. No entanto, foi observada baixa freqüência de anticorpos contra formas assexuadas e significativa prevalência de anticorpos contra esporozoítos de P. vivax e suas variantes, P. falciparum e P. malariae, que poderiam decorrer de contatos prévios, recentes ou não, com plasmódios humanos ou símios (o ciclo silvestre foi evidenciado em estudo paralelo realizado na mesma área)...
Subject(s)
Animals , Humans , Culicidae/classification , Insect Vectors/classification , Malaria/epidemiology , Brazil/epidemiology , Culicidae/parasitology , Ecosystem , Insect Vectors/parasitology , Malaria/diagnosis , Plasmodium/classification , Plasmodium/immunology , Plasmodium/isolation & purification , Population Density , Power Plants , PrevalenceABSTRACT
Malaria emerges from a disequilibrium of the system 'human-plasmodium-mosquito' (HPM). If the equilibrium is maintained, malaria does not ensue and the result is asymptomatic plasmodium infection. The relationships among the components of the system involve coadaptive linkages that lead to equilibrium. A vast body of evidence supports this assumption, including the strategies involved in the relationships between plasmodium and human and mosquito immune systems, and the emergence of resistance of plasmodia to antimalarial drugs and of mosquitoes to insecticides. Coadaptive strategies for malaria control are based on the following principles: (1) the system HPM is composed of three highly complex and dynamic components, whose interplay involves coadaptive linkages that tend to maintain the equilibrium of the system; (2) human and mosquito immune systems play a central role in the coadaptive interplay with plasmodium, and hence, in the mainten-ance of the system's equilibrium; the under- or overfunction of human immune system may result in malaria and influence its severity; (3) coadaptation depends on genetic and epigenetic phenomena occurring at the interfaces of the components of the system, and may involve exchange of infectrons (genes or gene fragments) between the partners; (4) plasmodia and mosquitoes have been submitted to selective pressures, leading to adaptation, for an extremely long while and are, therefore, endowed with the capacity to circumvent both natural (immunity) and artificial (drugs, insecticides, vaccines) measures aiming at destroying them; (5) since malaria represents disequilibrium of the system HPM, its control should aim at maintaining or restoring this equilibrium; (6) the disequilibrium of integrated systems involves the disequilibrium of their components, therefore the maintenance or restoration of the system's equilibrium depend on the adoption of integrated and coordinated measures acting on all components,...
Subject(s)
Humans , Animals , Anopheles , Adaptation, Physiological/genetics , Insect Vectors , Malaria , Plasmodium , Adaptation, Physiological/immunology , Adaptation, Physiological/physiology , Anopheles/genetics , Anopheles/immunology , Anopheles/parasitology , Antimalarials/pharmacology , Biological Evolution , Drug Resistance/genetics , Host-Parasite Interactions/genetics , Host-Parasite Interactions/immunology , Insect Vectors/genetics , Insect Vectors/immunology , Insect Vectors/parasitology , Malaria/immunology , Malaria/parasitology , Plasmodium/drug effects , Plasmodium/genetics , Plasmodium/immunology , Plasmodium/physiologyABSTRACT
Nitric oxide (NO) is thought to be an important mediator and critical signaling molecule for malaria immunopathology; it is also a target for therapy and for vaccine. Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) is synthesized by a number of cell types under inflammatory conditions. The most relevant known triggers for its expression are endotoxins and cytokines. To date, there have been conflicting reports concerning the clinical significance of NO in malaria. Some researchers have proposed that NO contributes to the development of severe and complicated malaria, while others have argued that NO has a protective role. Infection with parasites resistant to the microbicidal action of NO may result in high levels of NO being generated, which could then damage the host, instead of controlling parasitemia. Consequently, the host-parasite interaction is a determining factor for whether the parasite is capable of stimulating NO production; the role of NO in resistance to malaria appears to be strain specific. It is known that NO and/or its related molecules are involved in malaria, but their involvement is not independent of other immune events. NO is an important, but possibly not an essential contributor to the control of acute-phase malaria infection. The protective immune responses against malaria parasite are multifactorial; however, they necessarily involve final effector molecules, including NO, iNOS and RNI.
Subject(s)
Animals , Humans , Malaria/immunology , Nitric Oxide/immunology , Host-Parasite Interactions , Malaria/enzymology , Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II/metabolism , Plasmodium/immunology , Plasmodium/physiologyABSTRACT
A Amazônia é conhecida pela elevada prevalência de infeccão pelo vírus da hepatite B, contribui também com mais de 90 por cento dos casos de malária do país. É proposto que a ocorrência de co-infeccões seja importante e que na associacão ocorram alteracões na história natural dessas enfermidades. O estudo avalia 545 pacientes com malária, em Coari, AM: 333 (61,1 por cento) pelo Plasmodium vivax, 193 (35,4 por cento) pelo Plasmodium falciparum e 19 (3,5 por cento) com infeccão mista. A prevalência do AgHBs foi 4,2 por cento e a do anti-HBc total 49,7 por cento. Os pacientes sororreativos para o VHB, não apresentaram diferencas clínicas dos outros pacientes com malária, nem associacão a sinais clássicos de comprometimento hepático. Apesar de não ter sido detectada associacão estatisticamente significativa, os indivíduos AgHBs reativos apresentaram baixas parasitemias e índices de reatividade de anticorpos mais elevados, sugerindo a possibilidade da resposta imune em um indivíduo co-infectado ser diferenciada e favorecer variacões em relacão à parasitemia e producão de anticorpos.
Subject(s)
Adolescent , Adult , Middle Aged , Animals , Humans , Male , Female , Hepatitis B virus/immunology , Hepatitis B/complications , Malaria/complications , Plasmodium/immunology , Acute Disease , Antibodies, Protozoan/blood , Brazil/epidemiology , Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay , Hepatitis B Antibodies/blood , Hepatitis B Surface Antigens/blood , Hepatitis B/epidemiology , Hepatitis B/immunology , Malaria/epidemiology , Malaria/immunology , PrevalenceABSTRACT
The interaction between the malaria parasite and the human host involves a number of interactions that result in the parasite evading the human immune system. Since the stages of the malaria lifecycle are complex, this allows the use of various immune evasion strategies by the malaria parasite and has major implications in the development of a vaccine for malaria endemic areas. The present review highlights key host:parasite interactions. Plasmodia puts selection pressure on human gene frequencies, and studies into host genetic factors such as the Duffy blood group and sickle cell anaemia offer insight into the host- parasite relationship. In addition, parasite interactions with the different effector arms of the immune system can result in altered peptide ligand (APL) antagonism which alters the immune response from a pro- to an anti-inflammatory T cell response. Recent insights into the interaction between professional antigen presenting cells, dendritic cells (DCs), and malaria parasites is discussed in detail.
Subject(s)
Animals , Antigens, CD , Dendritic Cells/immunology , Host-Parasite Interactions/genetics , Humans , Malaria Vaccines , Peptide Fragments , Plasmodium/immunology , Plasmodium falciparum/immunology , Protozoan Proteins/immunology , T-Lymphocytes/immunologyABSTRACT
CD8+ T cells have been implicated as critical effector cells in protection against the pre-erythrocytic stage of malaria in mice and humans following irradiated sporozoite immunization. Immunization experiments in animal models by several investigators have suggested different strategies for vaccination against malaria and many of the targets from liver stage malaria antigens have been shown to be immunogenic and to protect mice from the sporozoite challenge. Several prime/boost protocols with replicating vectors, such as vaccinia/influenza, with non-replicating vectors, such as recombinant particles derived from yeast transposon (Ty-particles) and modified vaccinia virus Ankara, and DNA, significantly enhanced CD8+ T cell immunogenicity and also the protective efficacy against the circumsporosoite protein of Plasmodium berghei and P. yeti. Based on these experimental results the development of a CD8+ T cell inducing vaccine has moved forward from epitope identification to planning stages of safety and immunogenicity trials of candidate vaccines
Subject(s)
Humans , Animals , Mice , CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology , Erythrocytes/immunology , Malaria/immunology , Plasmodium/immunology , Erythrocytes/parasitology , Malaria Vaccines , Plasmids , T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/immunologyABSTRACT
A proteína de superfície de merozoítos-1 (MSP-1) é um dos principais antígenos candidatos à vacina contra a fase assexuada sanguínea da malária. nesta revisäo analisamos dados disponíveis sobre a extensäo da diversidade da MSP-1 em populaçoes naturais de P. falciparum e P. vivax, e o potencial impacto desta diversidade sobre o reconhecimeno imunológico deste antígeno por pacientes com malária. Emfatizamos os dados recentemente obtidos durante estudos realizados na Amazônia brasileira, onde ambas as espécies de parasita säo prevalentes. Os dados moleculares e imunológicos säo discutidos em relaçäo à biologia da populaçäo de parasitas e possíveis estratégias para o desenvolvimento de uma vacina contra a malária baseada na MSP-1.
Subject(s)
Animals , Humans , Antigens, Protozoan/genetics , Plasmodium/genetics , Plasmodium/immunology , Merozoite Surface Protein 1/genetics , Malaria Vaccines/immunology , Alleles , Amino Acid Sequence , Genetic Variation , Malaria/immunology , Plasmodium falciparum/genetics , Plasmodium falciparum/immunology , Plasmodium vivax/genetics , Plasmodium vivax/immunology , Merozoite Surface Protein 1/immunologyABSTRACT
Immunity to malaria is a complex process. In malaria endemic areas, sustained clinical immunity develops gradually. Protective immunity to malaria comprises both antibody-dependent and antibody-independent effector mechanisms. Although, the relative roles of B and T cells differ in different malaria systems and different stages of the parasite, T cells are essential for the induction and maintenance of immunity against malaria. T cell-derived soluble factors are believed to be important mediators of cellular effector mechanisms. The efficacy of an antigen as a malaria vaccine depends to a great extent on the T cell recognition sites and the nature of the responses induced by these determinants. In order to select suitable epitopes in an immunogen, an understanding of the definition of antigenic sites recognized by T cells and characterization of the nature of the T cell responses induced in malaria endemic populations is important.
Subject(s)
Animals , Humans , Immunity, Cellular , Malaria/immunology , Plasmodium/immunology , T-Lymphocytes/immunologyABSTRACT
Malaria is the most prevalent endemic disease in large parts of the world and is subject to control by health authorities. Today, the goal of malaria control is to prevent mortality and reduce morbidity and socioeconomic losses through the progressive improvement and strengthening of local and national capabilities. The World Health Organization considers early diagnosis as the first basic element of the strategy to control the disease. Traditionally, laboratory diagnosis has been made using the thick blood film, which continues to be the gold standard test. However, this test has disadvantages such as the manner in which the film is prepared, the level of training of the observer, the adequacy of maintenance of materials and equipment and its only fair sensitivity. Thus, many research laboratories have concentrated their efforts on the development of alternative methods for malaria diagnosis. These include methods for the detection of Plasmodia within erythrocytes (fluorescent microscopy, Quantitative Buffy Coat (QBC(), dark field microscopy, nucleic acid probes and immunofluorescence), methods for the detection of plasmodial antigens in body fluids (radioimmunoassay, enzyme immunoassay) and methods for the detection of anti-plasmodial antibodies in serum (indirect immunofluorescence, enzyme immunoassay, Western blotting). Here, we critically review the various methods for malaria diagnosis based on the world's literature and our experience with most of them, with emphasis on recent advances.
Subject(s)
Animals , Malaria/diagnosis , Antibodies, Protozoan/blood , Antigens, Protozoan/blood , Fluorescent Antibody Technique , Malaria/prevention & control , Plasmodium/immunology , Plasmodium/isolation & purification , Nucleic Acid Probes/bloodABSTRACT
Antibodies against repetitive epitopes on Plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax circumsporozoite (CS) proteins and epitopes on the 45 kDa and 185-200 kDa P. falciparum merozoite surface proteins were measured by radioimmunoassay in a two year longitudinal study in Nikawehera village located in the intermediate rainfall zone of Sri Lanka. The prevalence and concentrations of specific antibodies were in many, but not all instances, greater in adults than in children who were aged 7-15 yr at the beginning of the study. The concentrations and prevalence of antibodies were associated with malaria transmission levels previously determined from entomological and hospital admission data in the area. Antibody responses to epitopes on different P. falciparum antigens, two different epitopes within the 185-200 kDa merozoite surface protein and between the P. falciparum and P. vivax CS repeats were significantly correlated. Antibody concentrations against a conserved epitope in the 185-200 kDa protein were significantly higher in P. falciparum infected individuals than in non-parasitaemic subjects. Antibody concentration and prevalences in Nikawehera were lower than at Weheragala, a site located 70 km away in the dry zone of Sri Lanka. It is postulated that lower levels of immunity in the population in areas such as Nikawehera, that are adjacent to more highly malaria endemic areas, may promote epidemics when conditions favour transmission.
Subject(s)
Adolescent , Adult , Aged , Amino Acid Sequence , Animals , Antibodies, Protozoan/biosynthesis , Antigens, Protozoan/immunology , Antigens, Surface/immunology , Child , Female , Humans , Malaria/parasitology , Male , Middle Aged , Molecular Sequence Data , Plasmodium/immunology , PrevalenceABSTRACT
Apresenta uma descriçäo das questoes específicas de validade que säo relevantes para uma avaliaçäo da eficácia de vacinas em campo e mostram como a aplicaçäo desses princípios poderiam melhorar a interpretaçäo dos dados coletados atualmente pelos ensaios de campo de vacinas anti-maláricas. Pressupoe que a avaliaçäo de vacinas compartilha os mesmos princípios gerais de validade com a inferência causal epidemiológica, i.é., o processo de fazer inferências a partir dos dados epidemiológicos, objetiva identificar as causas das doenças. A aplicaçäo criteriosa desses princípios indica que, as medidas de eficácia vacinal requerem definiçoes baseadas em argumentos condicionais à quantidade de exposiçäo à infecçäo e a especificaçäo dos estados inicial e final onde acredita-se que ocorre o evento de interesse para o ensaio.
Subject(s)
Efficacy , Malaria Vaccines , Plasmodium/immunology , Malaria/prevention & controlABSTRACT
Very little information is available as regards the methods to be advocated to prevent transfusion malaria, especially in endemic countries. Most of the malaria non-endemic countries follow the rule of donor deferral for 3 years after malaria infection. This criterion cannot be followed in endemic areas since the majority of the population is continuously exposed to this infection. Therefore, there was a long felt need for a suitable screening procedure for blood donors to make the transfusion therapy safe. A total of 6,435 blood donors and 3,621 patients who received blood from these donors were studied by blood smears examination and malarial antigen detection by specific monoclonal antibody. Smear examination by Giemsa and acridine orange staining methods showed poor results (0.06% and 0.1% positivity respectively), probably due to low concentration of parasites. However, antigen detection by monoclonal antibody confirmed specific diagnosis in majority of these subjects. Blood smear examination failed to reveal malaria infection in 92.3% of antigen positive blood donors. It is, therefore, recommended that antigen detection by monoclonal antibody should be adopted as a routine screening procedure by the blood transfusion services in malaria endemic countries like India.
Subject(s)
Animals , Antibodies, Monoclonal/diagnosis , Antigens, Protozoan/blood , Blood Donors , Blood Transfusion/adverse effects , Humans , Malaria/diagnosis , Mass Screening/methods , Plasmodium/immunologyABSTRACT
A total of 74 specimens from blood donors showing evidence of HIV infection comprising of 40 positive by both ELISA and Western Blot (true positive), 16 positive by ELISA but negative by Western Blot (false positive) and 18 specimens positive by ELISA but showing indeterminate bands in Western Blot were screened for anti-malarial antibody. The prevalence of antimalarial antibody was noted as 62.5%, 56.3% and 66.6% respectively in these groups. None of these groups had any difference in the prevalence of antimalarial antibody with the group of 60 specimens negative for HIV infection by both ELISA as well as Western Blot (true negative) which had a prevalence of antimalarial antibody as 53.3%. The mean titre of antimalarial antibody in the above categories of specimens positive for HIV infection also did not show any difference with that of true negative group. These findings point out that antimalarial antibody does not influence the serological positivity for HIV infection.