Las epidemias de viruela y la introducción de la vacuna en el Virreinato del Río de la Plata / Smallpox epidemics and vaccine introduction in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata

La viruela fue una de las enfermedades epidémicas más temidas desde la antigüedad debido a su alta mortalidad y a las secuelas que dejaba en aquellos que lograban sobrevivir. En el presente trabajo se abordará el ingreso de esta enfermedad en nuestro continente, así como su manifestación a través de epidemias, brotes y focos endémicos. Al mismo tiempo se verá qué reacciones provocó dentro del ámbito médico durante los años del Virreinato del Río de la Plata. Se analizarán los problemas que surgieron con el uso de la vacuna importada, así como el hallazgo de nuestra vacuna local, finalizando con los comienzos de la organización de los servicios de vacunación obligatoria. (AU)

Smallpox was one of the most feared epidemic diseases since ancient times due to its high mortality and the sequelae caused in those that managed to survive. In the present work, the introduction of this disease into our continent will be addressed as well as its manifestation through epidemics, outbreaks, and endemic foci. At the same time, the reactions this disease caused inside the medical field during the years of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata will be observed. The problems that arose from the usage of the imported vaccine and the discovery of our local vaccine will be analyzed, and it will finish with the beginnings of the organization of the mandatory vaccination services. (AU)

Las epidemias en La Pampa (Argentina), en perspectiva histórica* / The epidemics in La Pampa (Argentina), from a historical perspective

Resumen Este artículo describe el inicio de las preocupaciones sanitarias vinculadas a las epidemias ocurridas durante el siglo XX en La Pampa, provincia argentina. Las epidemias, como las de la viruela, fueron un estímulo para estas políticas que frecuentemente tuvieron origen en Buenos Aires, la capital del país. El contagio de muchas epidemias dependía de carencias de infraestructura: agua, desagüe y desecho adecuado de basuras, de la ausencia de un número suficiente de trabajadores de salud, de la presencia de vectores transmisores de enfermedades como los mosquitos y, en última instancia, de la pobreza. La experiencia histórica descrita en este texto resalta la importancia de analizar el impacto del SARS-CoV-2 más allá de las grandes ciudades.

Abstract This article describes the emergence of health concerns relating to the epidemics that occurred during the twentieth century in La Pampa, a province in Argentina. Epidemics such as smallpox drove such policies, which frequently originated in Buenos Aires, the country's capital. The spread of many epidemics was due to shortages: water, sewage and adequate refuse disposal, an insufficient number of health care workers, the presence of disease transmission vectors such as mosquitos, and, ultimately, poverty. The historical experience described in this text highlights the importance of analyzing the impact of SARS-CoV-2 beyond the big cities.

Protomedicatos y lazaretos como instituciones de control de la higiene pública en Chile entre 1879 y 1920 / Colleges of royal physicians and isolation hospitals to control public hygiene in Chile from 1879 to 1920

El presente artículo indaga la aparición de dos instituciones de control de la higiene pública en Chile entre los años 1879 y 1920: los protomedicatos y lazaretos. El objeto de estudio utiliza como caso la presencia de la viruela en La Araucanía. Se abordan las características y contexto que adquirió la instalación de estos dispositivos que permitieron al Estado de Chile operacionalizar el asunto de la higiene pública, lo que interpeló a los profesionales de la salud para avanzar a mayores niveles de perfeccionamiento del ejercicio profesional de la medicina. El Estado liberal positivista de fines de siglo XIX comprendió que el tema de la higiene no era solamente una cuestión de responsabilidad individual, sino que tenía una dimensión social, pública y medio ambiental. No sólo había personas que eran higiénicas, sino también ambientes higiénicos y antihigiénicos. Por tanto, se estudia la higiene, el tribunal del protomedicato, la hoja sanitaria, lazaretos, médicos y vacunadores; quienes estuvieron en permanente tensión con las autoridades del gobierno central debido a los insuficientes recursos proporcionados por el Estado para la atención de los enfermos contagiados con viruela. El estudio se orienta desde una metodología cualitativa con un diseño historiográfico con alcances descriptivos densos. Se han utilizado fuentes primarias y secundarias disponibles en archivos en Chile y Alemania. Los resultados evidencian que la presencia de viruela apareció violentamente en el centro sur de Chile en la segunda mitad del siglo XIX y permaneció en la Araucanía hasta la primera mitad del siglo XX. La violencia con que se desarrolló la viruela generó miedo e incertidumbre afectando a personas de diferentes clases sociales, y tuvo como una de sus causas principales las precarias condiciones de salubridad de la población.

This article investigates the emergence of two institutions for the control of public hygiene in Chile between 1879 and 1920: colleges of royal physicians and isolation hospitals using the case of smallpox in La Araucanía, a region located in the South of Chile. We cover the characteristics and context of these institutions that allowed the State of Chile to address the problems of public hygiene and to prompt health professionals to professionalize the practice of medicine. The liberal positivist state of the late nineteenth century understood that the issue of hygiene was not only a matter of individual responsibility but had a social, public, and environmental dimension. People practiced hygiene alongside the existence of hygienic and anti-hygienic environments. Therefore, hygiene, the royal colleges of physicians, health records, isolation hospitals, doctors, and vaccinators are studied. All of these components of the health care system of the time were in permanent tension with the central government authorities due to the insufficient resources provided by the state for the care of infected patients with smallpox. The study follows a qualitative methodology with a descriptive historiographic design. We used archival primary and secondary sources available in Chile and Germany. The results show that the presence of smallpox appeared ferociously in South-Central Chile in the second half of the 19th century and remained in La Araucanía until the first half of the 20th century. The extent to which smallpox spread, spawning fear and insecurity in people of different social classes, had as one of its leading causes the precarious conditions of health and hygiene of the population.

Crónica de un éxito consolidado: las políticas de erradicación de la viruela en Brasil (1962-1973) / Chronicle of a consolidated success: smallpox eradication policies in Brazil (1962-1973)

RESUMEN El objetivo de este artículo es comprender las acciones para combatir la viruela en Brasil, en el marco de la Campaña de Erradicación de la Viruela, que tuvo lugar en las décadas de 1960 y 1970. Se intenta argumentar que, además de la aguja bifurcada y de la vacuna liofilizada, la vigilancia epidemiológica -a partir de la construcción de instrumentos y protocolos de vigilancia en salud- fue el tercer elemento clave que garantizó la erradicación de la enfermedad. La hipótesis que se pretende sustentar es que las acciones de control y erradicación de la viruela contribuyeron a la construcción de nuevas instituciones de salud en el interior de Brasil. Como un ejercicio de análisis sociohistórico, la investigación se basó en fuentes documentales (informes, boletines y legislaciones), en entrevistas con profesionales directamente involucrados con la erradicación de la viruela y en parte de la producción intelectual de estos respecto del tema.

ABSTRACT The aim of this article is to understand actions taken towards smallpox eradication in Brazil, in the framework of the Smallpox Eradication campaign that took place in the 1960s and 1970s. The article argues that, in addition to the bifurcated needle and the lyophilized vaccine, epidemiological surveillance - based on the construction of instruments and protocols for health surveillance - was the third key element that guaranteed the eradication of the disease. The hypothesis is that the actions taken towards the control and eradication of smallpox contributed to the construction of new health institutions within Brazil. As an exercise of socio-historical analysis, this research was based on documentary sources (reports, newsletters and legislation), interviews with professionals directly involved in the eradication of smallpox, and part of the intellectual production on the subject.

La etapa posterior a la erradicación de la viruela en México, 1952-1977 / The phase after the eradication of smallpox in Mexico, 1952-1977

Resumen Esta nota estudia la etapa posterior a la declaración de la erradicación de la viruela en México y comprende de junio de 1952 (fecha en que las autoridades sanitarias proclamaron oficialmente este acontecimiento) a 1977 (año en que el Instituto Nacional de Higiene elaboró el último lote de vacuna antivariolosa glicerinada). Expone que durante estos años, la Secretaría de Salubridad y Asistencia continuó invirtiendo recursos en trabajos dirigidos al combate a la viruela para sostener los niveles de protección antivariolosa y evitar la reintroducción de la enfermedad en una época en que ésta todavía era endémica en varios países del mundo; y refiere el hecho de que la población siguió denunciando casos sospechosos y atribuyendo muertes a esta enfermedad.

Abstract This paper studies the phase after the declaration of the eradication of smallpox in Mexico and covers the period from June 1952 (the date on which the health authorities officially proclaimed this event) to 1977 (the year in which the National Institute of Hygiene prepared the last batch of glycerinated anti-smallpox vaccine). It is revealed that during these years, the Ministry of Health and Assistance continued to invest resources in work aimed at combating smallpox to maintain the levels of protection against smallpox and to prevent the reintroduction of the disease at a time when it was still endemic in several countries worldwide; and states that the population continued to report suspected cases and attribute deaths to this disease.

Control, contención y educación higiénica en las campañas de vacunación contra la viruela en México durante la década de 1940 / Control, containment and health education in the smallpox-vaccination campaigns in Mexico in the 1940s

El artículo examina algunas transformaciones por las que atravesaron los programas mexicanos de vacunación, a partir de 1943, al establecerse la Campaña Nacional contra la Viruela. Se analiza por qué se procuró implementar un método uniforme y coordinado de vacunación para terminar con los brotes epidémicos de esa enfermedad endémica, sobre todo en la región central del país; se estudian las acciones de su amplio y heterogéneo personal y los argumentos por los que se consideró que la vacunación antivariolosa era central para consolidar una cultura de prevención. En suma, se estudia por qué se favoreció la vacunación selectiva, la persuasión y la extensión de los programas de educación higiénica, temáticas que han sido escasamente abordadas en la historiografía.

This article examines some of the changes that the Mexican vaccination programs underwent starting in 1943, the year when the National Smallpox Campaign (Campaña Nacional contra la Viruela) was established. It analyzes why a uniform and coordinated vaccination method was adopted to counter the outbreaks of this endemic disease, especially in central Mexico; the actions of its numerous and heterogeneous staff; and the reasons why smallpox vaccination was considered critical to establish a culture of prevention. In summary, the article examines why selective vaccination was chosen and the expansion of the health-education programs, topics that have been seldom addressed in historical research.

Extermination of the Smallpox Virus – Light at the End of the Tunnel… or not – the Stalemate Continues.

The following is a commentary on the article “Arita I, Breman JG. Evaluation of smallpox vaccination policy. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 1979;57(1):1-9.” Abstract (of the original article): During 1978 and 1979 the Global Commission for the Certification of Smallpox Eradication will proceed with verification of smallpox eradication in 31 countries. If current surveillance activities do not discover any further cases before the end of 1979, the world will be declared smallpox free. However, the recent occurrence of two laboratory associated smallpox cases in Birmingham, England, revealed that the stocks of variola virus held in at least 12 laboratories in the world pose a real danger to the achievement of smallpox eradication and efforts are being made to reduce the number of laboratories retaining the virus to not more than 4-all WHO collaborating centres-by 1980. Scientific data indicate the unlikelihood of smallpox recurring once it has been eradicated from the human population, although further confirmatory studies are continuing. If the Global Commission verifies the eradication of smallpox, continuation of smallpox vaccination will be unjus-tifiable in view of its severe complications, however infrequent, and the expected global savings that would result from the termination of vaccination programmes.

Vacinação, varíola e uma cultura da imunização no Brasil / Vaccination, smallpox, and a culture of immunization in Brazil

O objetivo deste artigo é discutir a emergência e o estabelecimento de uma "cultura da imunização" no Brasil contemporâneo a partir da erradicação da varíola. Essa cultura está associada a um longo processo de introdução de vacinas, de campanhas de vacinação e de vacinação em massa empreendidas pelo Estado brasileiro desde o final do século XIX. Particular importância é atribuída à campanha de erradicação da varíola no Brasil (1966-1973). A experiência da vacinação em massa da população contra a varíola é contrastada com episódios de resistência como a "Revolta da Vacina", e considerada como crucial na configuração de novas políticas e novas compreensões sobre o papel da imunização na saúde pública e seu lugar na sociedade brasileira.

The aim of this paper is to discuss the emergence and establishment of a "culture of immunization" in the contemporary Brazil from the eradication of smallpox. This culture is associated with a long process of introduction of vaccines, vaccination campaigns and mass vaccination undertaken by the Brazilian government since the late nineteenth century. Particular importance is attributed to the campaign to eradicate smallpox in Brazil (1966-1973). The experience of mass vaccination of the population against smallpox is contrasted with episodes of resistance as the "revolt against the vaccine", and regarded as crucial in shaping new policies and new understandings about the role of immunization in public health and its place in society Brazil.

Sobre a varíola e as práticas da vacinação em Minas Gerais (Brasil) no século XIX / About smallpox and vaccination practices in Minas Gerais (Brazil) in the 19th century

Este artigo analisa o impacto da varíola e da prática da vacinação antivariólica em Minas Gerais durante o período imperial brasileiro (1822-1889). Apesar da presença de órgãos que visavam à organização e à propagação da vacina no país desde o início do século XIX, identifica-se, pela documentação relativa à saúde pública produzida pelas autoridades provinciais, uma série de fatores de natureza administrativa e cultural que influenciaram negativamente na plena implementação quer da vacina quer da estrutura organizada no período visando à sua difusão. Seguindo as proposições da historiografia dedicada ao tema, discute-se que, apesar da tendência à centralização observada em diferentes esferas da administração no processo de estruturação do Estado Imperial, no âmbito da saúde e, particularmente, no âmbito do serviço de vacinação antivariólica, prevaleceu uma desarticulação entre os diferentes agentes responsáveis pela implementação e o controle desse serviço. Outro aspecto que contribuiu para as dificuldades relativas à implementação desse serviço foi a grande resistência da população em submeter-se à vacina e que pode ser entendida pela análise das percepções sociais construídas sobre a doença e o método da vacinação.

This article discusses the impact of smallpox and vaccination practices used against the disease used in the province of Minas Gerais, in Brazil, during the Imperial Period (1822-1889). Despite the existence of services responsible for the organization and dissemination of the vaccine in the country since the early 19th century, some administrative and cultural factors, as identified in documents produced by the province's public health authorities at the time, had a negative impact upon the full implementation of both practice and organization of services aimed at the dissemination of smallpox vaccination. Based upon historiographic sources, it is argued that despite the trend towards centralization observed at different governmental spheres during the structuring of the Imperial State, in particular, in the provision of vaccination services, there was a prevailing disharmony between the different agencies responsible for the implementation and management of such services. A further contributor to the difficulties in the service implementation was the resistance of the population to submit to the vaccination, a phenomenon that can be best understood through examination of the social construction of perceptions about diseases and the vaccination method used against the smallpox.

Marcados en la piel: vacunación y viruela en Argentina (1870-1910) / Marked on the skin: vaccination and smallpox in Argentina (1870-1910)

Este artículo estudia la vacunación antivariólica en Argentina desde 1870, cuando se inician los debates al respecto, hasta la década de 1910, cuando se amplía al resto del país. Se analizan las prácticas de inmunización puestas en marcha con anterioridad a la Ley de vacunación obligatoria, aprobada en 1886 para la Capital y en 1904 para el resto del país. Tal medida fue resistida desde diferentes sectores. Su aprobación dependió de las consecuencias del proceso de modernización y urbanización acelerada, del peso de los higienistas en el escenario político y su extensión dependió de una concepción administrativa diferente, que incorporaba nuevas áreas y sectores al escenario nacional.

This paper studies the smallpox vaccination in Argentina since 1870, when these discussions were inittiaded until the 1910s, when they were extended to the rest of the country. We analyze immunization practices implemented prior to the compulsory vaccination law, passed in 1886 for the Capital and in 1904 for the rest of the country. Such a move found resistance from different sectors. Its approval depended on the consequences of modernization and urbanization, the weight of hygienists in the political arena, and its extension depended on a different administrative conception, incorporating new areas and sectors to the national scenario.

Smallpox and polio eradication in India: comparative histories and lessons for contemporary policy / Erradicação da varíola e da pólio na Índia: histórias comparativas e lições para políticas contemporâneas

O artigo argumenta que um exame detalhado dos fatores que contribuíram para o desenvolvimento de estruturas e estratégias complexas para a erradicação da varíola no Sul da Ásia nos anos 70 pode fornecer indicações proveitosas para a reformulação dos capítulos nacionais do programa global de erradicação da pólio nesta região. Existe um impressionante arquivo nos escritórios da OMS em Genebra que detalha como os ataques para a erradicação da varíola foram localizados e então contidos em cidades, pequenas vilas e áreas rurais remotas desta região, por equipes de profissionais internacionais trabalhando em conjunto com as autoridades locais. Uma avaliação sistemática dos esforços globais de erradicação da varíola indicam paralelos entre os estágios iniciais do programa global de erradicação da varíola e a atual situação da campanha contra a pólio. Como veremos aqui, o artigo também pode fornecer indicadores úteis para ações futuras no Sul da Ásia e em outros locais.

This article argues that a detailed examination of factors contributing to the development of complex structures and strategies for smallpox eradication in South Asia in the 1970s can provide fruitful indications for the reformulation of the national chapters of the global polio eradication programme in this region. There is a magnificent archive in the WHO's Geneva offices, which details how smallpox eradication outbreaks were located and then contained in cities, small towns and remote rural areas in this region, by teams of international workers working closely with local officials. A systematic assessment of the global smallpox eradication efforts indicates parallels between the early stages of the global smallpox eradication programme and the present situation of the polio campaign; as we will see here, it can also provide useful indicators for future action in South Asia and beyond.

Varíola e vacina no Brasil no século XX: institucionalização da educação sanitária / Smallpox and vaccine in Brazil at 20th century: institutionalization of health education

O objetivo deste texto é discutir algumas ações que possibilitaram a erradicação da varíola no Brasil, considerando os principais contextos e as políticas adotadas para as doenças entre 1920 e 1970, assumindo como destaque as medidas educativas no campo da saúde e estabelecendo uma discussão acerca do conteúdo educacional dos programas adotados. Observam-se, ao longo deste período, a configuração de políticas de saúde e a criação de organismos estatais direcionados a doenças e ações específicas, o que no caso da varíola somente ocorreu na década de 1960, quando foram criadas a Campanha Nacional contra a Varíola e a Campanha Nacional de Erradicação da Varíola. A educação sanitária e as relações com estas instituições foram de fundamental importância para a divulgação e implementação de ações estatais que possibilitaram ampliação da cobertura vacinal com a aceitação de seu uso pela população, o alcance do controle e a erradicação da doença.

The aim of this paper is to discuss some actions that made possible the eradication of smallpox in Brazil, considering the main contexts and policies adopted for the disease between 1920 and 1970, assuming as contrast educational measures in the field of health and establishing a discussion on the educational content of the programs adopted. It can be observed that, during this period, the setting of the health policies and the creation of state agencies that target specific diseases and actions, which in the case of the smallpox, only occurred in the 1960s, when the National Campaign against the Smallpox and the National Campaign for Eradication of Smallpox were created. Health education and the relations with these institutions were of fundamental importance to the dissemination and implementation of state actions that allowed the expansion of the vaccinal coverage with acceptance of its use by the population and the range of control and eradication of the disease.

Small(pox) success? / Erradicação da varíola: medida do sucesso?

O 30º aniversário da certificação oficial da Organização Mundial da Saúde (OMS) da erradicação da varíola foi marcado por uma série de eventos que saudaram a dramática história do triunfo tecnológico e organizacional contra este antigo flagelo. Todavia, as comemorações também servem como momentos para uma reflexão crítica. Este artigo questiona os aplausos excessivos para a erradicação da varíola como o único e absoluto sucesso na história da saúde pública. Examina como e por que a erradicação da varíola e a abordagem da atenção básica de saúde orientada para a justiça social (de acordo com a Declaração de Alma-Ata) se tornaram paradigmas concorrentes. Sintetiza críticas sobre as deficiências da erradicação e busca desvelar alguns dos mitos que envolvem a campanha de erradicação global como uma prioridade e necessidade da saúde pública, e como uma vitória da cooperação da Guerra Fria. O artigo finaliza com reflexões sobre a integração de aspectos técnicos e sociopolíticos da saúde no contexto do Estado de bem-estar social como forma de atingir um amplo e duradouro sucesso para a saúde pública global.

The 30th anniversary of the World Health Organization's (WHO) official certification of smallpox eradication was marked by a slew of events hailing the campaign's dramatic tale of technological and organizational triumph against an ancient scourge. Yet commemorations also serve as moments of critical reflection. This article questions the acclaim showered upon smallpox eradication as the single greatest public health success in history. It examines how and why smallpox eradication and WHO's concurrent social justice-oriented primary health care approach (following from the Declaration of Alma-Ata) became competing paradigms. It synthesizes critiques of eradication's shortcomings and debunks some of the myths surrounding the global eradication campaign as a public health priority and necessity, and as a Cold War victory of cooperation. The article concludes with thoughts on integrating technical and social-political aspects of health within the context of welfare states as the means to achieving widespread and enduring global public health success.

Smallpox eradication, laboratory visits, and a touch of tourism: travel notes of a Canadian scientist in Brazil / Erradicando a varíola, visitando laboratórios e um pouco de turismo: notas de viagem de um cientista canadense ao Brasil

The paper presents and discusses the travel notes diary of Canadian scientist Robert J. Wilson when he visited Brazil in April 1967 during the Smallpox Eradication Programme run by the World Health Organisation. Wilson's report makes it possible to reflect on the smallpox eradication campaign in Brazil; on the Canada-Brazil cooperation to improve the quality of the smallpox vaccine; on his assessment by of scientists and Brazilian laboratories; on the effects of intersections between scientific activity and social and cultural activities; on the role played by specialist communities of experts role in international scientific cooperation projects; and on a Canadian traveller's concepts and prejudices about Brazil at the end of the 1960s.