A debate over the link between Salvador Allende, Max Westenhöfer, and Rudolf Virchow: contributions to the history of social medicine in Chile and internationally / Una discusión sobre el vínculo entre Salvador Allende, Max Westenhöfer y Rudolf Virchow: aportes a la historia de la medicina social chilena e internacional*

Abstract In the history of Latin American social medicine, numerous works have presented a harmonious link between Rudolf Virchow, Max Westenhöfer, and Salvador Allende, which establishes the origin of ideas of Latin American social medicine in a prestigious European source, represented by Virchow. A key to that story is that Allende was a student of Westenhöfer, a disciple of Virchow who lived in Chile three times (1908-1911, 1929-1932, and 1948-1957). Based on primary sources and contextual data, this article problematizes the relationship between Allende and Westenhöfer, and questions the influence of Virchow in Chilean social medicine.

Resumen En el marco de la historia de la medicina social latinoamericana, numerosos trabajos historiográficos han presentado un vínculo armónico entre Rudolf Virchow, Max Westenhöfer y Salvador Allende, afirmando una procedencia virtuosa de las ideas de la medicina social latinoamericana en una prestigiosa fuente europea, como es la que representa Virchow. Un dato crucial en ese relato es que Allende habría sido estudiante de Westenhöfer; un discípulo de Virchow que vivió en Chile en tres ocasiones (1908-1911, 1929-1932 y 1948-1957). Este trabajo problematiza, usando fuentes primarias y datos de contexto, la relación entre Allende y Westenhöfer, y cuestiona la influencia de Virchow sobre el pensamiento médico-social en Chile.

La ética y la medicina social: la perspectiva de Michel Foucault / Ethics and social medicine: Michel Foucault's perspective

Resumen La preocupación de Michel Foucault por la medicina, su historia y su impacto en la sociedad, es una constante en su obra. El objetivo de este trabajo es contrastar el contenido de las conferencias que Foucault impartió en Río de Janeiro, en octubre de 1974, con los materiales preparatorios de las mismas que forman parte de los fondos adquiridos por la Biblioteca Nacional de Francia. Una de las cuestiones clave en dichas conferencias es la relación entre la ética y la medicina social contemporánea. Esa cuestión, analizada desde el punto de vista de Foucault, constituye el trasfondo e interés último del presente trabajo.

Abstract Michel Foucault's preoccupation with medicine, its history and its impact on society, is a constant in his work. The goal of this study is to contrast the content of the lectures Foucault gave in Rio de Janeiro, in October 1974, with the preparatory notes for them which are part of the archival holdings acquired by the National Library of France. One of the key questions in those lectures is the relationship between ethics and contemporary social medicine. This question, analyzed from Foucault's point of view, constitutes the background and ultimate interest of this article.

Diego Rivera, the history of medicine in Mexico: peopled demand for better health, mural in 1953 still current / Diego Rivera: la historia de la medicina en México: el pueblo en demanda de salud, mural de 1953 aún vigente

Abstract: Although public health and social medicine have a long history in Latin America going back to Co lonial times, their relevance has ebbed and flowed as a result of the development of a variety of social and political movements. The Mexican Revolution accelerated implementation of public health po licies in Mexico and resulted in the creation of the Mexican Institute of Social Security to serve the health and social security needs of the country's population. Construction of the Hospital La Raza and its embellishment by the mural paintings of Diego Rivera and David Alfaro Siqueiros correspon ded to the heyday of public health ideas in Mexico. This is clearly reflected in Rivera's mural painting from 1953, The History of Medicine in Mexico: People's Demand for Better Health. The left side of the painting, representing the history of modern medicine in Mexico, exemplifies the tensions between individuals and social groups demanding the fruits of modern medicine and public health, and en trenched bureaucracy and private interests resisting their demands. Rivera's artistry illustrates this tension by depicting urban social groups and a family with a pregnant mother and children reques ting medical attention on one side of the main panel, facing condescending physicians, bureaucrats and upper society gentlemen and ladies on the other side. The importance of social movements to the development of public health policies illustrated by Rivera in 1953 continues to be relevant in Latin America today where increasing millions still lack the benefits of health care and social security.

Dionisio José Sáez y García. Médico ilustre / Dionisio José Sáez y García, an illustrious doctor

El doctor Dionisio José Sáez y García, licenciado en Medicina y Cirugía en la Universidad de La Habana en 1851, es descendiente de una familia de médicos notables. Fue benefactor del Hospital de Santa Isabel, donde prestó sus servicios como cirujano durante 18 años sin remuneración alguna. Es deportado el 17 de febrero de 1869 por sus ideas independentistas. Repatriado en 1878, fue el primer presidente de la Asociación de Socorros Mutuos de Médicos y Farmacéuticos -luego Colegio Médico Farmacéutico de Cárdenas en 1882-, primera institución de este tipo en el país. Por todo ello, al igual que sus predecesores, se considera un médico ilustre (AU).

Doctor Dionisio José Sáez García, licentiate in Medicine and Surgery in the University of Havana in 1851, descended from a family of notable doctors. He was benefactor of Santa Isabel Hospital, where he worked as a surgeon during 18 years without any remuneration. On February 17, 1869 he was deported because of his independent ideas. Repatriated in 1878, he was the first president of the Association of Mutual Aids of Doctors and Pharmacists- later Medical Pharmaceutical College of Cardenas in 1882, first institution of this kind in the country. Due to all of this, like his predecessors, he is considered an eminent doctor (AU).

A questão racial na obra de Domingos Guedes Cabral / The issue of race in the work of Domingos Guedes Cabral

Resumo Na Bahia de 1875, a medicina e o evolucionismo foram utilizados pelo médico, jornalista e militante republicano Domingos Guedes Cabral como armas ideológicas para propor um programa radical de reformas sociais no país. O programa incluía diversas propostas no campo da educação, controle dos casamentos, assistência médica aos alienados, mudanças no sistema penal etc., tudo com base em conhecimentos científicos da época. Entre as ideias sociais de Guedes Cabral, a questão racial será nosso principal foco de análise. Nesse sentido, Domingos Guedes Cabral constitui um exemplo particularmente significativo para entender como foram os primeiros passos na peculiar aliança estabelecida entre evolucionismo, medicina e racismo científico no Brasil desde a década de 1870, momento de chegada do darwinismo no país.

Abstract In 1875 Bahia, medicine and evolutionism were used by the physician, journalist, and republican militant Domingos Guedes Cabral as ideological weapons to propose a radical program of social reforms in Brazil in the areas of education, marriage control, medical care to the alienated, changes in the penal system, etc., all of which were based on the scientific knowledge of that time. Among the social ideas of Guedes Cabral, the question of race will be the main focus of this analysis. In this sense, Domingos Guedes Cabral is a particularly significant example for understanding the initial steps in the peculiar alliance between evolutionism, medicine, and scientific racism in Brazil since the 1870s, when Darwinism first arrived in the country.

The genesis of the AIDS policy and AIDS Space in Brazil (1981-1989) / A gênese da política de luta contra a aids e o Espaço Aids no Brasil (1981-1989)

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE To analyze the genesis of the policy for controlling AIDS in Brazil. METHODS Socio-historical study (1981-1989), based on Bordieu's genetic sociology, by document analysis, bibliographical review, and in-depth interviews. It consisted of a connection between the analysis of the paths of 33 agents involved in the creation of a social space focusing on AIDS-related issues and the historical possibility conditions of the drafting of a specific policy. RESULTS AIDS Space is a gathering point for the paths of agents from several social fields (medical, scientific, political, and bureaucratic fields). A specific space for relationships, which enabled the drafting of a policy for controlling the AIDS epidemic, but also a place where the authority to talk about the meaning of the disease, the methods to prevent and treat it was under dispute. The analysis showed how the various structures (democratic administrations in Sao Paulo and at the national level, with public health officers taking important positions) and the lack of a specific therapy contributed to social agents of different ranks and backgrounds to initially set prevention as a priority. CONCLUSIONS The rise of the sanitary movement, the organization of SUS, and the dominance of the medical field at the AIDS Space contributed to foster treatment as a part of the measures to control the epidemic. These conditions allowed drafting a policy based on the integrality of care, by linking prevention and treatment in the following decade, with important participation from state bureaucracy and researchers.

RESUMO OBJETIVO Analisar a gênese da política de controle da aids no Brasil. MÉTODOS Estudo sócio-histórico (1981-1989), orientado pela sociologia genética de Bourdieu, por meio de análise documental, revisão bibliográfica e entrevistas em profundidade. Consistiu na articulação entre a análise das trajetórias de 33 agentes envolvidos na criação de um espaço social voltado para as questões relativas à aids e as condições históricas de possibilidade para a formulação de uma política específica. RESULTADOS O Espaço Aids constituiu-se como produto do encontro da trajetória de agentes de diversos campos sociais (médico, científico, político e burocrático). Um espaço específico de relações, que possibilitou a formulação de uma política para o controle da epidemia da aids, mas onde também estava em disputa a autoridade de falar sobre o significado da doença, suas formas de prevenção e tratamento. A análise mostrou como as estruturas (governos democráticos no estado de São Paulo e no âmbito nacional, com sanitaristas assumindo posições importantes) e a ausência de terapia específica contribuíram para que agentes sociais com disposições e formações diversas formulassem uma política que priorizou inicialmente a prevenção. CONCLUSÕES A ascensão do movimento sanitário, a constituição do SUS e a dominância do campo médico no Espaço Aids contribuíram para a valorização do tratamento, como parte das medidas de controle da epidemia. Essas condições possibilitaram a formulação de uma política baseada na integralidade das ações, articulando prevenção e tratamento, na década seguinte, com importante participação da burocracia estatal e de pesquisadores.

El aporte a la salud pública del Doctor Abraham Horwitz: luces desde la contemporaneidad / A contribuição à saúde pública do Dr Abraham Horwitz: luzes a partir da contemporaneidade / The contribution to public health of Abraham Horwitz: insigths from contemporaneous times

El propósito de este artículo es revisar las ideas centrales del pensamiento del Dr. Abraham Horwitz (1910-2000), quien se dedicó en cuerpo y alma a la salud pública, tanto de Chile como de América Latina y el Caribe. Este trabajo aborda su pensamiento desde una perspectiva contemporánea. Este es justamente nuestro desafío. Aunque vivimos en un mundo diferente al de los años sesenta, con grandes progresos en materia de salud, aún existen enormes brechas entre países y grupos sociales, además de grandes transformaciones sociodemográficas y económicas con alto impacto social.

The purpose of this article is to review the main ideas of doctor Abraham Horwitz’s thinking (1910-2000), who dedicated all his life to public health, both in Chile and Latin America and Caribbean. This paper focuses his thought from a contemporary perspective. This is precisely our challenge. Although we live in a different world from the sixties, with great progress in health, there are still huge gaps between countries and social groups, as well as large demographic and economic transformations with high social impact.

O propósito deste artigo é revisar as ideias centrais do pensamento do Dr. Abraham Horwitz (1910-2000), quem se dedicou corpo e alma à saúde pública, tanto do Chile como da América Latina e do Caribe. Este trabalho aborda o seu pensamento a partir de uma perspectiva contemporânea. Este é justamente o nosso desafio. Embora vivamos num mundo diferente ao dos anos sessenta, com grandes progressos em matéria de saúde, ainda existem enormes diferenças entre países e grupos sociais, além de grandes transformações sociodemográficas e econômicas com alto impacto social.

Medicina y salud pública al final del imperio / Medicine and publich health in the end of the empire

Las conexiones entre imperio, salud pública, y servicios médicos han actuado con distintas instituciones de mediación. Durante la subida del imperio, las organizaciones filantrópicas intentaron dirigir con iniciativas de la salud pública varios desafíos que las empresas capitalistas enfrentaban: productividad de trabajo, seguridad para los inversores y los gerentes, y los costos de atención. De orígenes modestos, las instituciones financieras internacionales y los acuerdos internacionales de comercio cambiaban eventualmente hacia una estructura masiva de las reglas comerciales que ejercerían efectos profundos sobre la salud pública y servicios de salud mundialmente. Las organizaciones internacionales de salud manifestaban una colaboración de continuidad con las instituciones que intentaban proteger comercio y negocios.

The connections between empire, public health and medical services have worked with various institutions in mediation. During the rise of the empire, philanthropic organizations attempted to steer with public health initiatives several challenges faced by capitalist firms: labor productivity, security for investors and managers, and care costs. With modest origins, international financial institutions and international trade agreements eventually changed into a massive structure of trade rules that exert profound effects on public health and health services worldwide. International health organizations manifested a continued collaboration with institutions trying to protect trade and business.

O pensamento social em saúde na América Latina: revisitando Juan César García / Social thinking in health in Latin America: revisiting Juan César García / El pensamiento social en salud en Latinoamérica: releyendo a Juan César García

O artigo elabora uma reconstituição do pensamento social em saúde do médico e sociólogo argentino Juan César García (1932-1984), analisando os principais trabalhos que trataram da sua obra e das suas atividades. Situa o seu pensamento nos dois campos que marcaram sua produção: a medicina social e as ciências sociais de 1960 até a segunda metade dos anos 80. Destaca-se a sua participação junto à Organização Pan-Americana da Saúde e a sua perspectiva de analisar a medicina social e as ciências sociais relacionando-as não somente ao contexto histórico, social, econômico e político latino-americano, mas dentro do enfoque do materialismo histórico: vinculação da medicina à estrutura social; influência da estrutura social na produção e distribuição da doença; análise interna da produção de serviços médicos; relação da formação de pessoal de saúde com o campo médico. Destaca que a sua obra pode ser, ainda hoje, referência quando se discutem temas como a educação médica, a formação de profissionais em saúde, o papel da ciência e da tecnologia, as ciências sociais no ensino médico, e aspectos históricos da saúde pública.

The article reconstitutes the social thinking in health by Argentine physician and sociologist Juan César García (1932-1984), analyzing the main publications approaching his work and activities. The article situates his thinking in the two fields that marked his production: social medicine and the social sciences from the 1960s to the late 1980s. The article highlights his work with the Pan American Health Organization and his perspective of analyzing social medicine and the social sciences by relating them not only to the Latin American historical, social, economic, and political context, but also to historical materialism: linking medicine to the social structure; the influence of the social structure on the production and distribution of diseases; internal analysis of the production of medical services; and the relationship between training of health personnel and the medical field. As demonstrated, even today his work can be a reference for the discussion of such themes as medical education, health personnel training, the role of science and technology, the social sciences in medical education, and historical aspects of public health.

El artículo presenta una reconstrucción del pensamiento social en salud del médico y sociólogo argentino Juan César García (1932-1984), analizando los principales estudios sobre su trabajo y sus actividades. Sitúa su pensamiento en los campos que marcaron su producción: la medicina social y las ciencias sociales desde 1960, hasta mediados de los 80, participación en la Organización Panamericana de la Salud y se hace hincapié en su perspectiva para analizar esos campos en relación con el contexto histórico, social, económico y político latinoamericano, dentro del enfoque materialista histórico: vinculación de la medicina con la estructura social, influencia de la estructura social en la producción y distribución de la enfermedad, el análisis interno de la producción de servicios médicos; formación del personal en el campo de la salud. Destaca que la obra de García puede ser hoy referencia cuando se habla de temas como la educación médica, la formación de profesionales de la salud, el papel de la ciencia y la tecnología, las ciencias sociales en la educación médica, los aspectos históricos de la salud pública.

La Escuela de Salud Pública de México: su fundación y primera época, 1922-1945 / The Mexican School of Public Health: its founding and first years: 1922-1945

Este artículo reconstruye la historia fundacional de la Escuela de Salud Pública de México, inaugurada como Escuela de Salubridad en marzo de 1922. Con base en el contexto histórico y educativo de la época, se presentan las diferentes causas que orillaron a las autoridades sanitarias del momento a apoyar su creación y promoción. El combate de las enfermedades y la promoción de una cultura de la prevención entre los mexicanos de antaño hicieron necesaria la formación de salubristas que contribuyeran al llamado periodo de reconstrucción nacional. Esta premisa se prolongó hasta 1945 con la instauración de la medicina social como bandera de acción en el terreno de la prevención de enfermedades, lo cual promovió acciones y políticas enfocadas a las comunidades rurales de México.

This article analyzes the foundation of the Public Health School of Mexico, which first opened its doors in March 1922. It presents the different circumstances which obliged the sanitary authorities to create and promote the School, based on the historic and educational context of the time. The struggle for disease eradication and the promotion of a culture of prevention among the Mexican population of the time made it necessary to train sanitarians who would contribute to the National Reconstruction period. This trend continued until 1945, when social medicine started to be considered as a flag of action in the field of disease prevention, which promoted actions and policies focused on the rural communities of Mexico.

Allende y la realidad médico-social, a 75 años / Allende and medical social reality: 75 year later

A 75 años de la publicación del libro ‘La Realidad Médico-Social Chilena’, escrito en 1939 por el Dr. Salvador Allende (Presidente de Chile, 1970-73) en su condición de Ministro de Salud del Presidente P. Aguirre Cerda, se re-visita con detalle, parte por parte, los diferentes capítulos de la Salubridad, vistos por el ojo del especialista que luego dirigiese la República, haciendo una breve relación con su vigencia actual. El articulista concluye que el Dr. Allende debió recibir un grado académico honorario en Salud Pública (no existía entonces en el país) y que su análisis, -con las adecuaciones epidemiológicas y políticas del caso-, podría ser el eje de un nuevo Programa de gobierno en el siglo XXI.

75 years later, a re-visiting of the book ‘The medical and social reality of Chile’, finds that it could still be the back-bone of a government policy and plan for the XXI century, given that suitable epidemiological and political upgradings are introduced. The book, written by Dr. Allende in 1939 when he was Minister of Health for President P. Aguirre Cerda, is a thorough and systematic presentation of all factors involved in the diagnosis and planning of health and medical services. The reviewer concludes that Dr. Allende would have deserved an honorary degree in Public Health (none existed at the time in the country).

A integralidade das ações no cotidiano do trabalho em equipe: uma pesquisa bibliográfica à partir da biblioteca virtual de saúde / The integration of actions in daily teamwork: a literature review from the virtual health library

Este trabalho apresenta uma pesquisa bibliográfica de artigos publicados na Biblioteca virtual de Saúde co o propósito de reconhecer acerca do que vem sendo debatido no meio acadêmico, ligado ao campo da Saúde, a respeito da relevância do trabalho em equipe para o Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS)...

Socio-political implications of the fight against alcoholism and tuberculosis in Colombia, 1910-1925 / Luchando por la patria, forjando trabajadores: tuberculosis, alcoholismo y salud pública en Colombia, 1910-1925

The emergence of a modern state in Colombia and the centralization of political and administrative power in Bogotá began to take shape during the latter decades of the nineteenth century. The state had a central role within the overarching modernisation discourse that sought to create a common national identity. One of the tasks assigned to the state by the national project was that of implementing policy for regulating public health and strengthening social control institutions. Such objectives should be analyzed as part of larger political centralization processes and the desire to create "ideal" citizens. Public health and sanitary campaigns implemented by government officials during this period targeted vice, immorality, illness and ignorance under the umbrella of social reform programmes. Government officials, hygienists and medical doctors continually placed emphasis on eradicating or regulating alcoholism and tuberculosis from 1910 to 1925, with the hopes of avoiding a national crisis. This paper examines how alcoholism and tuberculosis became central themes in the fears expressed by Colombia's ruling class at the time regarding the broader social decay of the nation. As intellectuals and public officials sought solutions to these ills, their explanations alluded to the disintegration of morality and values and the degenerative effects of vice, addiction and unsanitary conditions.

En Colombia, el surgimiento de un Estado moderno y la centralización del poder político y administrativo en Bogotá comenzaron durante las últimas décadas del Siglo XIX. Dentro de un discurso de modernidad que buscó la consolidación de una identidad nacional, el Estado jugó un importante papel. Dentro de las tareas asignadas al Estado moderno se encontraban políticas de salud pública y control social. Estas políticas deben ser analizadas como parte de una ola centralizadora y la necesidad de forjar ciudadanos sanos. Las campañas de salubridad buscaban erradicar el vicio, la inmoralidad, la enfermedad y la ignorancia bajo el manto de reformas sociales. De 1910 a 1925, médicos, higienistas y políticos se enfocaron en la erradicación del alcoholismo y la tuberculosis, con la intención de evitar una crisis nacional. Este trabajo explora como el alcoholismo y la tuberculosis se convirtieron en temas recurrentes en el discurso medico de principios de siglo, el cual enmarcaba a estas dos enfermedades como símbolos de la decadencia social y moral del pueblo colombiano.