A review of the possibility of adopting financially driven live donor kidney transplantation

ABSTRACT Kidney transplantation for end-stage renal disease remains the preferred solution due to its survival advantage, enhanced quality of life and cost-effectiveness. The main obstacle worldwide with this modality of treatment is the scarcity of organs. The demand has always exceeded the supply resulting in different types of donations. Kidney donation includes pure living related donors, deceased donors, living unrelated donors (altruistic), paired kidney donation and more recently compensated kidney donation. Ethical considerations in live donor kidney transplantation have always created a debate especially when rewarding unrelated donors. In this paper, we examine the problems of financially driven kidney transplantation, the ethical legitimacy of this practice, and propose some innovative methods and policies that could be adopted to ensure a better practice with accepted ethical guidelines.

Análise dos incentivos contratuais de transplantes de rins no Brasil pelo modelo agente-principal / Analysis of contractual incentives for kidney transplants in Brazil using the principal-agent model / Análisis de los incentivos contractuales de trasplantes de riñón en Brasil mediante el modelo agente-principal

Resumo: O objetivo do artigo foi analisar os incentivos contratuais de transplantes renais no Brasil com base no modelo agente-principal. A abordagem assume que o Ministério da Saúde seja o principal e os hospitais públicos credenciados pelo Sistema Nacional de Transplantes sejam o agente. O bem- estar do Ministério da Saúde depende das ações tomadas pelos hospitais captadores desse órgão. Os hospitais alocam esforços administrativos, financeiros e gerenciais para realizar as ações de doação, remoção, captação e transplante de rim. Os hospitais podem escolher os níveis de esforços que são compatíveis com os pagamentos e incentivos recebidos referentes ao custeio de transplantes. A solução para esse tipo de problema está na estruturação de um contrato ótimo de incentivos, no qual se requer um alinhamento de interesses de ambas as partes envolvidas nesse sistema de transplantes.

Abstract: The aim of this article was to analyze contractual incentives for kidney transplants in Brazil based on the principal-agent model. The approach assumes that the Brazilian Ministry of Health is the principal and the public hospitals accredited by the National Transplant System are the agent. The Ministry of Health's welfare depends on measures taken by hospitals in kidney uptake. Hospitals allocate administrative, financial, and management efforts to conduct measures in kidney donation, removal, uptake, and transplantation. Hospitals may choose the levels of effort that are consistent with the payments and incentives received in relation to transplantation costs. The solution to this type of problem lies in structuring an optimal incentives contract, which requires aligning the interests of both parties involved in the transplantation system.

Resumen: El objetivo del artículo fue analizar los incentivos contractuales de trasplantes renales en Brasil, a partir del modelo agente-principal. Este enfoque asume que el Ministerio de Salud sea el principal y los hospitales públicos, autorizados por el Sistema Nacional de Trasplantes, sean los agentes. El bienestar del Ministerio de Salud depende de las acciones tomadas por los hospitales receptores de este órgano. Los hospitales proporcionan los esfuerzos administrativos, financieros y de gestión para realizar las acciones de donación, extirpación, recepción y trasplante de riñón. Los hospitales pueden escoger los niveles de esfuerzos que son compatibles con los pagos e incentivos recibidos, referentes al costeo de trasplantes. La solución para este tipo de problema está en la estructuración de un contrato óptimo de incentivos, en el que se requiera un alineamiento de intereses de ambas partes involucradas en este sistema de trasplantes.

Intra-hospital organ and tissue donation coordination project: cost-effectiveness and social benefits / Projeto de coordenação intra-hospitalar de doação de órgãos: custo-efetividade e benefícios sociais

OBJECTIVE To evaluate the viability of a professional specialist in intra-hospital committees of organ and tissue donation for transplantation. METHODS Epidemiological, retrospective and cross-sectional study (2003-2011 and 2008-2012), which was performed using organ donation for transplants data in the state of Sao Paulo, Southeastern Brazil. Nine hospitals were evaluated (hospitals 1 to 9). Logistic regression was used to evaluate the differences in the number of brain death referrals and actual donors (dependent variables) after the professional specialist started work (independent variable) at the intra-hospital committee of organ and tissue donation for transplantation. To evaluate the hospital invoicing, the hourly wage of the doctor and registered nurse, according to the legislation of the Consolidation of Labor Laws, were calculated, as were the investment return and the time elapsed to do so. RESULTS Following the nursing specialist commencement on the committee, brain death referrals and the number of actual donors increased at hospital 2 (4.17 and 1.52, respectively). At hospital 7, the number of actual donors also increased from 0.005 to 1.54. In addition, after the nurse started working, hospital revenues increased by 190.0% (ranging 40.0% to 1.955%). The monthly cost for the nurse working 20 hours was US$397.97 while the doctor would cost US$3,526.67. The return on investment was 275% over the short term (0.36 years). CONCLUSIONS This paper showed that including a professional specialist in intra-hospital committees for organ and tissue donation for transplantation proved to be cost-effective. Further economic research in the area could contribute to the efficient public policy implementation of this organ and tissue harvesting model.

OBJETIVO Avaliar a viabilidade de profissional especialista em comissões intra-hospitalares de doação de órgãos e tecidos para transplantes. MÉTODOS Estudo epidemiológico, retrospectivo e transversal (2003 a 2011 e 2008 a 2012), realizado com dados de doação de órgãos para transplantes no estado de São Paulo. Foram avaliados nove hospitais (hospitais 1 a 9). Foram avaliadas, por regressão logística, diferenças em número de notificações de morte encefálica e doadores efetivos (variáveis dependentes) após a entrada do profissional especialista (variável independente) na comissão intra-hospitalar de doação de órgãos e tecidos para transplantes. Para avaliação do faturamento hospitalar, foram calculados o salário-hora de médico e enfermeiro, conforme legislação da Consolidação das Leis do Trabalho, o retorno e o prazo do retorno do investimento. RESULTADOS Após a entrada de enfermeiro especialista na comissão, as notificações de morte encefálica e o número de doadores efetivos aumentaram no hospital 2 (4,17 e 1,52, respectivamente). No hospital 7, o número de doadores efetivos também aumentou de 0,005 para 1,54. E, após entrada de enfermeiro especialista, o faturamento hospitalar aumentou em 190,0% (variação de 40,0% a 1.955%). O custo mensal para 20 horas semanais do enfermeiro foi R$940,00 e, do médico, R$8.330,00. O retorno do investimento foi de 275%, em curto prazo (0,36 anos). CONCLUSÕES A inserção de profissional especialista nas comissões intra-hospitalares para captação de doação de órgãos e tecidos para transplantes mostra-se custo-efetiva. Novos estudos econômicos na área podem contribuir com uma política pública eficiente de implantação desse modelo de captação de órgãos e tecidos para transplantes.

Organ transplant and presumed consent: towards an "opting out" system.

This paper examines the “opt out” system of organ donation wherein the State permits removal of tissue and organs posthumously unless an express objection is made by the person prior to the death. This paper examines the need for “presumed consent” and the jurisprudential arguments in support of it. The social contract theory and the sociological approach based on the principle of “common good” support this system. However, the ethical concerns raised while implementing such a system are debatable. It is for societies to evaluate the situation and make a choice between “ethics” and “common good”. The answer may not be obvious in a country like India where religion may supersede the question of life and death. The paper critically assesses both the issues, and concludes that presumed consent may be a viable method of addressing the organ shortage in India. However, we need public discourse and public awareness to change people’s attitude to this concept.

Human organ trade: Is enough being done.

In recent times, instances of illegal organ transplants are on a rise. Despite of strict regulations doctors, donors, middlemen and hospitals are indulging frequently in organ trade. Any organ transplant, if not done in accordance with transplantation of human organ act, 1994 is considered illegal in Indian law. The act permits any registered medical practitioner to transplant human organs for therapeutic purpose without any motive of financial gains, neither to the doctor not to the donor. Such procedures can be done by permission of appropriate authorization committee in any hospital, authorized by law for the purpose. Any adult healthy person can volunteer to donate tissues from his body to any needy patient; such donations can be made during ones life time if they don’t pose danger to ones life, after taking his consent or after his death (cadaveric donation) by permission of next of kin. If no consent (living will) is present, then also the legal possessors of body can allow removal, if they don’t have any reason to believe deceased’s refusal for the same. In hospital deaths, if bodies are unclaimed for 48 hrs after death then hospital can dispose the body and use the organs as directed by the deceased. Before certification of death proper diagnosis of brain stem death is to be made as per Harvard’s criteria. Live donations are exclusively made, to save the life of a patient, preferably by a near relative as defined in the act. Unrelated donations are made in inevitable circumstances, on approval by appropriate authorization authority [1]. Any transplantation which is not in accordance with transplantation of human organ act is illegal and doctor, donor as well as recipient can be punished. Punishment can be imprisonment upto 5 years and fine upto Rs. 10000/- or both. Whosoever, engages in commercial dealings in human organs is punished with imprisonment of 2-7 years and a fine of Rs. 10000 to Rs. 20000. When a doctor is convicted under the act, action is also taken by medical council. It can lead to temporary erasure of name from medical register for the 1st offence and penal erasure for subsequent one [1]. Unfortunately, even strict legislation has not deterred the offenders. Recent investigations made a shocking revelation of a village, Magadi in Bangalore rural area where people have been selling kidneys to pay their debts. This racket was traced extending to several nearby villages. Huge amount of money was being made by middle men depriving the donor of the sum assured [2]. Ignorance of law among donors, considerable monetary gains and feeling among offenders that they can easily get away from the law may be responsible for this growing menace. General awareness about the act among the masses is proposed along with a review of penal portion of the act and strict implementation of the provisions provided in the act to control illegal trade of human organs.

Ética y trasplantes de órganos: búsqueda continua de lo que es aceptable / Ethics and organ transplantation: continous search for defining what is acceptable

In the past 50 years, Transplant Medicine has been adopted worldwide as a growing option for treatment of many organic diseases. Ethical Issues in organ replacement therapy have emerged since the begining. Significant advancements in the care of critically ill patients, as well as the increasing need of cadaveric organs for transplantation, definitively influenced a complex discussion about new criteria for definition of death, one of the most complex ethic debates in last century. Criteria for organ assignment are also cause of profound debate, especially when the number of patients waiting for an organ is extremely high compared with organ availability. Living donor represents a very complex figure in modern medicine, security issues as well as the need to offer them absolute respect to their capacity to decide must be considered in every patient. Ethics in transplantation represent a continuous search for defining what is acceptable.

La práctica de la medicina de trasplante ha sido adoptada, como primera opción terapéutica, para un número creciente de enfermedades orgánicas durante los últimos 50 años. Diversos y complejos cuestionamientos éticos han surgido desde los primeros años. El desarrollo paralelo de formas avanzadas de cuidado en el paciente críticamente enfermo y la necesidad de órganos para trasplante, obligaron a una rápida reconsideración acerca de los criterios para definir la muerte, uno de los debates más encarnizados del siglo XX. La selección de receptores para trasplante es también motivo de profunda controversia y discusión, diversos cuestionamientos de orden ético se plantean en relación con la asignación de órganos cadavéricos para trasplante, estos puntos de debate adquieren inusitada importancia en un escenario de enorme demanda de órganos para trasplante. La compleja figura del donador vivo en la práctica de la medicina de trasplante obliga a la precisa definición de los criterios de seguridad y de respeto a la capacidad de decisión respecto a la donación. Ética en trasplante de órganos representa una continua búsqueda por definir lo que es aceptable.

Estudio de costos del procuramiento renal en Chile / Costs study of the organ procurement in Chile

El objetivo de esta investigación fue conocer cuáles son los costos reales del procuramiento renal nacional. Se efectuó un análisis retrospectivo entre 1996 y 1999 de los costos fijos y costos variables, los que se prorratearon por el número total de riñones procurados, el que fue definido como la unidad. El análisis demuestra que el costo unitario es de 930.000 pesos (U$ 1.735), en el año 1999. El FONASA entrega a la Corporación de Transplante el equivalente a U$ 600. Existen variabilidad anual, en términos de que a mayor cantidad de riñones obtenidos, su costo unitario disminuye por la mayor eficiencia del uso de los costos fijos. En países desarrollados el costo unitario de un rinón procurado fluctúa entre U$ 9.600 y U$ 16.900, con un promedio de U$ 13.417. Existen algunos costos que en nuestro estudio se encuentran subvalorados, dado que algunas de las presentaciones son hechas gratuitamente como acciones de beneficencia. Para que esta actividad permanezca en el tiempo, se requiere de un mayor financiamiento a fin de poder darle proyecciones necesarias para satisfacer la creciente demanda de órganos que existe a nivel nacional

Ciências, mercado e patentes do DNA humano / Human DNA science, market and patents

Analisa as diferentes possiblidades de uso dos atuais avanços da genética, situando principalmente a questäo do patenteamento do DNA humano. Faz uma defesa da economia de mercado mas estabelece, porém, ser inaceitável, por qualquer propósito, admitir-se uma estrutura social que subordine o valor moral do corpo humano a interesses comerciais. Alerta para o fato de que a comercializaçäo das informaçöes genéticas pode se transformar em instrumento de aumento das desigualdades entre as naçöes ricas e pobres. Defende, outrossim, a necessidade de estabelecer clara distinçäo entre descoberta e invençäo, e que somente a última deve ser contemplada com o direito à propriedade intelectual. Considera fundamental contrapor-se à tendência atual de tornar a vida humana passível de interesses comerciais explícitos. Finalmente, chama a atençäo para o risco de serem adotadas fórmulas de quaisquer fundamentalismos, quer sejam os anticientíficos, quer sejam os gerados pelo monetarismo das sociedades de mercado