Magnitude dos episódios reacionais na hanseníase em serviço ambulatorial especializado / Magnitude of reactional episodes in leprosy in a specialized outpatient service

O objetivo do estudo é caracterizar os episódios reacionais segundo os dados sociodemográficos, clínicos e epidemiológicos de pacientes com hanseníase em um município hiperendêmico do estado do Piauí, Brasil, no período de 2013 a 2017. Para tanto, um estudo descritivo, transversal e retrospectivo utilizou-se os casos de hanseníase, notificados no Sistema de Informação de Agravos de Notificação (SINAN), juntamente com a ficha de dispensação de medicamentos do local em estudo. Foram realizadas análise univariada, por meio de estatística descritiva simples, e análise bivariada, utilizando o Qui-quadrado de Pearson para associar as va-riáveis quantitativas com a variável resposta do estudo, que é o momento da reação hansênica. A significância estatística foi fixada em p<0,05. Observou-se que a maioria dos episódios reacionais ocorreram durante o tratamento para hanseníase. Homens, pardos, pessoas com ensino fundamental completo ou incompleto, pedreiros, moradores da zona urbana, indivíduos dimorfos, multibacilares e com presença de grau 0 de incapacidade física, predominaram no aparecimento de reação. A reação que prevaleceu foi a do tipo 1, seguida pelo tipo 2, e em última, a reação mista. Diante disso, com-preende-se que as vulnerabilidades individuais, sociais e econômicas impactam diretamente no desenvolvimento de reação hansênica.(AU)

The objective of the study is to characterize the reactional episodes according to the sociodemographic, clinical and epidemiological data of patients with leprosy in a hyperendemic municipality in the state of Piauí, Brazil, from 2013 to 2017. For that, a study descriptive, cross-sectional and retrospective, leprosy cases notified in the Disease Information System were used of Notification (SINAN), together with the medication dispensing form place under study. Univariate analysis was performed using simple descriptive statistics, and bivariate analysis, using Pearson's Chi-square to associate the quantitative variables with the study response variable, which is the moment of the leprosy reaction. Statistical significance was set at p<0.05. It was observed that most reactional episodes occurred during treatment for leprosy. Men, browns, people with complete or incomplete elementary education, bricklayers, residents of the urban area, dimorphic, multibacillary individuals and with the presence of degree zero of physical disability, were the ones that predominated in the appearance of reaction. The reaction that prevailed was type 1, followed by type 2 and, finally, the mixed reaction. In view of this, it is understood that individual, social and economic vulnerabilities directly impact the development of leprosy reaction.

Dermatology practice in the times of the COVID-19 pandemic.

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is implicated in the ongoing pandemic across the globe since December 2019. It was first notified by China from Wuhan on 31 December 2020 and transmission to healthcare workers was first reported on 20 January 2020. Human-to-human transmission is mainly by droplet infection. At present no effective vaccine is available. Our speciality needs to collectively address the urgent issue of risk of transmission in dermatology practice. A case series of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) from Wuhan described that 41.3% of their patients may have acquired the infection from the hospital. Of all the infected health care workers, 77.5% worked in general wards and departments. These data highlight the significant risk of nosocomial transmission of COVID-19 and also the higher risk in general wards and departments compared to the emergency room or intensive care unit. Dermatology patients are generally seen in clinics and in outpatient departments in hospitals. Patients wait together in the waiting area, intermingle and then are seen by the physician in their chamber. This can cause transmission of the pathogen among patients and from patient to physician. Social distancing, hand hygiene and the use of personal protective equipment are important for preventing the spread of infection and dermatology practices also have to incorporate these aspects. Telemedicine is becoming an important tool for the management of dermatology patients in these times. At-risk patients in dermatology also need to be given priority care. Protocols for the use of immunosuppressants and biologics in dermatology during the pandemic are being developed.

Clinical outcomes after early ambulatory multidrug therapy for high-risk SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) infection.

There is an emergency need for early ambulatory treatment of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in acutely ill patients in an attempt to reduce disease progression and the risks of hospitalization and death. Such management should be applied in high-risk patients age > 50 years or with one or more medical problems including cardiovascular disease. We evaluated a total of 922 outpatients from March to September 2020. All patients underwent contemporary real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay tests from anterior nasal swab samples. Patients age 50.5 ± 13.7 years (range 12 to 89), 61.6% women, at moderate or high risk for COVID-19 received empiric management via telemedicine. At least two agents with antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 (zinc, hydroxychloroquine, ivermectin) and one antibiotic (azithromycin, doxycycline, ceftriaxone) were used along with inhaled budesonide and/or intramuscular dexamethasone consistent with the emergent science on early COVID-19 treatment. For patients with high severity of symptoms, urgent in-clinic administration of albuterol nebulizer, inhaled budesonide, and intravenous volume expansion with supplemental parenteral thiamine 500 mg, magnesium sulfate 4 grams, folic acid 1 gram, vitamin B12 1 mg. A total of 320/922 (34.7%) were treated resulting in 6/320 (1.9%) and 1/320 (0.3%) patients that were hospitalized and died, respectively. We conclude that early ambulatory (not hospitalized, treated at home), multidrug therapy is safe, feasible, and associated with low rates of hospitalization and death. Early treatment should be considered for high-risk patients as an emergency measure while we await randomized trials and guidelines for ambulatory management.

Reading of the Mitsuda test: comparison between diameter and total area by means of a computerized method.

The Mitsuda test is a skin test based on the individual's immune response through late and highly specific hypersensitivity reaction to the Mycobacterium leprae bacillus. A negative reaction identifies individuals who present a higher risk of becoming ill if exposed to M. leprae and, if they become ill, to develop the virchowian form of disease. The Mitsuda test reading is performed by means of a millimeter ruler. The dermatoscopy is a method that has not been used in the evaluation of cutaneous tests, although its use has increased in several areas. The study aimed to compare the results between the standardized reading and the total area of the Mitsuda test obtained by a computerized method which was structured by the association of digital dermatoscopy, the Dermatology Web system and the Image Tool 3.0 software. Data collection was performed at the Dermatology Outpatient Clinic of the Eduardo de Menezes Hospital, in Belo Horizonte, from November 2015 to August 2016. The sample consisted of 100 leprosy domiciliary contacts. There was an excellent agreement between the Mitsuda test (diameter and area), with a coefficient greater than 80%, and an excellent correlation with the Spearman's correlation coefficient (0.936). The intraclass correlation coefficient indicated a low (0.219) but significant agreement between the two measurements. In conclusion, there is a significant correlation between the standardized reading and the total area of the Mitsuda test. Digital dermoscopy can be an alternative instrument of evaluation, allowing the computerization and recording of the Mitsuda test.

Cost of three models of care for drug-resistant tuberculosis patients in Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Nigeria accounts for a significant proportion of the global drug-resistant tuberculosis (DR-TB) burden, a large proportion of which goes untreated. Different models for managing DR-TB treatment with varying levels of hospitalization are in use across Nigeria, however costing evidence is required to guide the scale up of DR-TB care. We aimed to estimate and compare the costs of different DR-TB treatment and care models in Nigeria. METHODS: We estimated the costs associated with three models of DR-TB treatment and care: Model (A) patients are hospitalized throughout the 8-month intensive phase, Model (B) patients are partially hospitalized during the intensive phase and Model (C) is entirely ambulatory. Costs of treatment, in-patient and outpatient care and diagnostic and monitoring tests were collected using a standardized data collection sheet from six sites through an ingredient's approach and cost models were based on the Nigerian National Tuberculosis, Leprosy and Buruli Ulcer Guideline - Sixth Edition (2014) and Guideline for programmatic and clinical management of drug-resistant tuberculosis in Nigeria (2015). RESULTS: Assuming adherence to the Nigerian DR-TB guidelines, the per patient cost of Model A was $18,528 USD, Model B $15,159 USD and Model C $9425 USD. Major drivers of cost included hospitalization (Models A and B) and costs of out-patient consultations and supervision (Model C). CONCLUSION: Utilizing a decentralized ambulatory model, is a more economically viable approach for the expansion of DR-TB care in Nigeria, given that patient beds for DR-TB treatment and care are limited and costs of hospitalized treatment are considerably more expensive than ambulatory models. Scale-up of less expensive ambulatory care models should be carefully considered in particular, when treatment efficacy is demonstrated to be similar across the different models to allow for patients not requiring hospitalization to be cared for in the least expensive way.

Routine Follow-Up Radiographs for Ankle Fractures Seldom Add Value to Clinical Decision-Making: A Retrospective, Observational Study.

Currently, the routine use of radiographs for uncomplicated ankle fractures represents good clinical practice. However, radiographs are associated with waiting time, radiation exposure, and costs. Studies have suggested that radiographs seldom alter the treatment strategy if no clinical indication for the imaging study was present. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effect of routine radiographs on the treatment strategy during the follow-up period of ankle fractures. All patients aged ≥18 years, who had visited 1 of the participating clinics with an eligible ankle fracture in 2012 and with complete follow-up data were included. The data were retrospectively analyzed. The sociodemographic and clinical characteristics and the number of, and indications for, the radiographs taken were collected from the medical records of the participating clinics. We assessed the changes in treatment strategy according to the radiographic findings. In 528 patients with an ankle fracture, 1174 radiographs were performed during the follow-up period. Of these radiographs, 936 (79.7%) were considered routine. Of the routine radiographs taken during the follow-up period, only 11 (1.2 %) resulted in changes to the treatment strategy. Although it is common practice to take radiographs routinely during the follow-up period for ankle fractures, the results from the present study suggest that routine radiographs seldom alter the treatment strategy. This limited clinical relevance should be weighed against the health care costs and radiation exposure associated with the use of routine radiographs. For a definitive recommendation, however, the results of our study should be confirmed by a prospective trial, which we are currently conducting.

Household expenditure on leprosy outpatient services in the Indian health system: A comparative study.

BACKGROUND: Leprosy is a major public health problem in many low and middle income countries, especially in India, and contributes considerably to the global burden of the disease. Leprosy and poverty are closely associated, and therefore the economic burden of leprosy is a concern. However, evidence on patient's expenditure is scarce. In this study, we estimate the expenditure in primary care (outpatient) by leprosy households in two different public health settings. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We performed a cross-sectional study, comparing the Union Territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli with the Umbergaon block of Valsad, Gujrat, India. A household (HH) survey was conducted between May and October, 2016. We calculated direct and indirect expenditure by zero inflated negative binomial and negative binomial regression. The sampled households were comparable on socioeconomic indicators. The mean direct expenditure was USD 6.5 (95% CI: 2.4-17.9) in Dadra and Nagar Haveli and USD 5.4 (95% CI: 3.8-7.9) per visit in Umbergaon. The mean indirect expenditure was USD 8.7 (95% CI: 7.2-10.6) in Dadra and Nagar Haveli and USD 12.4 (95% CI: 7.0-21.9) in Umbergaon. The age of the leprosy patients and type of health facilities were the major predictors of total expenditure on leprosy primary care. The higher the age, the higher the expenditure at both sites. The private facilities are more expensive than the government facilities at both sites. If the public health system is enhanced, government facilities are the first preference for patients. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: An enhanced public health system reduces the patient's expenditure and improves the health seeking behaviour. We recommend investing in health system strengthening to reduce the economic burden of leprosy.

Percepção dos profissionais de saúde e gestores sobre a atenção em hanseníase na Estratégia Saúde da Família / Health professionals' and managers' perception of leprosy care within the Family Health Strategy / Percepción de los profesionales sanitarios y gestores sobre la atención de la lepra en la Estrategia Salud de la Familia

Objetivo: Conhecer a percepção dos profissionais de saúde e gestores sobre a atenção em hanseníase na Estratégia Saúde da Família. Métodos: Pesquisa de abordagem qualitativa realizada a partir de entrevistas semiestruturadas, no período de julho a agosto de 2016, junto aos profissionais de nível superior que atuam nas equipes de referência em Saúde da Família e Núcleo de apoio à Saúde da Família (NASF), assim como seus respectivos coordenadores na cidade de Morada Nova, Ceará, Brasil. O corpus de dados sofreu análise de conteúdo. Resultados: Evidenciou-se que a atenção em hanseníase no município é realizada de maneira centralizada sob a responsabilidade de um único profissional especialista e sem participação efetiva da Estratégia Saúde da Família (ESF). A colaboração interprofissional não se efetiva e não existem espaços formais para diálogo e discussão de caso entre a equipe. Os principais desafios relatados pelos entrevistados foram com relação à centralização do serviço, à adesão dos usuários às atividades de prevenção e tratamento desenvolvidas, e à falta de apoio da gestão municipal. Conclusão: Identificou-se que esse modo de organização da atenção em hanseníase impacta em vários aspectos do processo de trabalho e cuidado, influenciando de maneira negativa a prevenção, a vigilância e o acompanhamento em hanseníase no município, bem como favorecendo o modelo biomédico hegemônico e mantendo a crítica situação epidemiológica da região. Sugere-se que estudos futuros correlacionem o modo de organização do cuidado em hanseníase na ESF com a situação epidemiológica dos territórios, subsidiando mudanças assistenciais.

Objective: To know health professionals' and managers' perception of leprosy care within the Family Health Strategy. Methods: Qualitative research conducted from July to August 2016 using semi-structured interviews with professionals with a higher education degree who work in reference Family Health teams and in the Family Health Support Center (Núcleo de apoio à Saúde da Família ­ NASF), as well as their respective coordinators in the city of Morada Nova, Ceará, Brazil. The data corpus was subjected to content analysis. Results: Leprosy care in the municipality is carried out in a centralized way under the responsibility of a single specialist and without the effective participation of the Family Health Strategy (FHS). Interprofessional collaboration does not occur and there are no formal spaces for dialogue and case discussion among the team members. The main challenges reported by the interviewees referred to the centralization of the service, the users' adherence to the prevention and treatment activities carried out, and the lack of support from municipal management. Conclusion: This mode of organization of leprosy care impacts on several aspects of the work and care processes, negatively influencing the prevention, the surveillance and the monitoring of leprosy in the municipality, as well as favoring the hegemonic biomedical model and maintaining the critical epidemiological situation of the region. Further studies are required to correlate the mode of organization of leprosy care in the FHS with the epidemiological situation of the territories to foster care changes.

Objetivo: Conocer la percepción de los profesionales sanitarios y gestores sobre la atención de la lepra en la Estrategia Salud de la Familia. Métodos: Investigación de abordaje cualitativo realizada a partir de entrevistas semi-estructuradas en el período entre julio y agosto de 2016 con los profesionales de nivel superior que actúan en equipos de referencia en Salud de la Familia y Núcleo de Apoyo a la Salud de la Familia (NASF) así como sus respectivos coordinadores de la ciudad de Morada Nova, Ceará, Brasil. Los datos fueron analizados por el análisis de contenido. Resultados: Se evidenció que la atención de la lepra del municipio se da de manera centralizada bajo la responsabilidad de solamente un profesional especializado y sin la participación efectiva de la Estrategia Salud de la Familia (ESF). No existe la colaboración entre los profesionales y no hay espacios formales para el dialogo y la discusión de caso entre el equipo. Los principales desafíos relatados por los entrevistados fueron respecto la centralización del servicio, la adhesión de los usuarios a las actividades de prevención y tratamiento desarrolladas y la falta de apoyo de parte de la gestión municipal. Conclusión: Se identificó que esa manera de organización de la atención de la lepra causa impacto de varios aspectos del proceso de trabajo y del cuidado influyendo de manera negativa en la prevención, la vigilancia y el seguimiento de la lepra en el municipio así como favorece el modelo biomédico hegemónico para la manutención de la crítica situación epidemiológica de la región. Se sugiere que los estudios futuros relacionen el modo de la organización del cuidado de la lepra en la ESF con la situación epidemiológica de los territorios, subvencionando cambios asistenciales.

Caracterização da qualidade de vida de pessoas com hanseníase em tratamento ambulatorial / Characteristics of people of quality of life with leprosy in outpatient treatment / Características de la gente de la calidad de vida con la lepra entratamiento ambulatorio

Objective: To characterize the quality of life of people with leprosy in outpatient treatment. Method: Exploratory-descriptive quantitative study with 59 subjects. To obtain the socioeconomic and clinical data of individuals used the questionnaire, and for the quality of life, the Short Medical Outcomes Study 36 - Item Short-Form Health Survey SF-36. Data analysis was adopted IBM SPSS statistical software. Results: 78% multibacillary; males 54.3%; mean age 45.9 years; economically active 67%. The SF-36 shows average scores calculated values up to score 50, but the physical and emotional aspects (score <50) Age was correlated to the areas of functional capacity and physical aspects, while sex was associated with mental health. Conclusion: The investigated population has adequate quality of life, though, it is observed that this is affected by the disease.

Objetivo: Caracterizar a qualidade de vida de pessoas com hanseníase em tratamento ambulatorial. Método: Estudo quantitativo exploratório descritivo com 59 sujeitos. Para obtenção dos dados socioeconômicos e clínicos dos indivíduos utilizou-se formulário próprio e para a qualidade de vida, o questionário Short Medical Outcomes Study 36 – Item Short-Form Health Survey, o SF-36. Para análise dos dados adotou-se o software estatístico IBM SPSS. Resultados: 78% multibacilares; sexo masculino 54,3%; idade média de 45,9 anos; economicamente ativos 67%. O SF-36 aponta escores médios calculados em valores acima ao escore 50, exceto os aspectos físicos e emocionais (escore < 50) A idade esteve correlacionada aos domínios de capacidade funcional e aspectos físicos, enquanto o sexo esteve associado à saúde mental. Conclusão: A população investigada apresenta qualidade de vida adequada, embora, observa-se que esta se encontra afetada pela doença.

Objetivo: Caracterizar la calidad de vida de las personas con lepra en tratamiento ambulatorio. Método: Estudio cuantitativo exploratorio descriptivo con 59 temas. Para obtener los datos socioeconómicos y clínicos de los individuos utilizaron el cuestionario, y para la calidad de vida, el Short Medical Outcomes Study 36 - Artículo Short-Form Health Survey SF-36. Se aprobó el análisis de datos de IBM SPSS software estadístico. Resultados: 78% multibacilar; varones 54.3%; edad media de 45,9 años; económicamente activa de 67%. El SF-36 muestra las puntuaciones medias calculadas valores de hasta anotar 50, pero los aspectos físicos y emocionales (puntuación <50) La edad se correlacionó con las áreas de la capacidad funcional y los aspectos físicos, mientras que el sexo se asocia con la salud mental. Conclusión: La población investigada ha adecuada calidad de vida, sin embargo, se observa que esta se ve afectada por la enfermedad.

Assessing clinical significance of treatment outcomes using the DASS-21.

Standard clinical significance classifications are based on movement between the "dysfunctional" and "functional" distributions; however, this dichotomy ignores heterogeneity within the "dysfunctional" population. Based on the methodology described by Tingey, Lambert, Burlingame, and Hansen (1996), the present study sought to present a 3-distribution clinical significance model for the 21-item version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21; P. F. Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995) using data from a normative sample (n = 2,914), an outpatient sample (n = 1,000), and an inpatient sample (n = 3,964). DASS-21 scores were collected at pre- and post-treatment for both clinical samples, and patients were classified into 1 of 5 categories based on whether they had made a reliable change and whether they had moved into a different functional range. Evidence supported the validity of the 3-distribution model for the DASS-21, since inpatients who were classified as making a clinically significant change showed lower symptom severity, higher perceived quality of life, and higher clinician-rated functioning than those who did not make a clinically significant change. Importantly, results suggest that the new category of recovering is an intermediate point between recovered and making no clinically significant change. Inpatients and outpatients have different treatment goals and therefore use of the concept of clinical significance needs to acknowledge differences in what constitutes a meaningful change.

A study on histological features of lepra reactions in patients attending the Dermatology Department of the Government Medical College, Calicut, Kerala, India.

OBJECTIVES: 1. To study and compare the clinical and histological features of Type 1 and Type 2 lepra reactions. 2. To document the histological patterns of Type 1 and Type 2 lepra reactions observed in the study population. DESIGN: Two year cross sectional study. Patients attending the outpatient department of our tertiary care hospital, during the 2 year study period with clinical evidence of Type 1 (T1R) or Type 2 (T2R) lepra reactions were included in this study after obtaining written informed consent. During this period 34 T1R patients and 14 T2R patients attended our hospital. Biopsies were taken from reacting skin lesions of all patients and histological features were studied. RESULTS: Dermal or intragranuloma oedema was evident in 50% of T1R patients and all of them had clinically severe reactions. The T1R patients showed three different histological patterns--pgrading reactions, downgrading reactions and reactions without upgrading or downgrading. Among T2R patients 8/14 showed neutrophil infiltration histologically, 5/14 showed no histological evidence of neutrophil infiltration and only one patient had features of neutrphilic vasculitis. Dermal oedema was seen in 11/14 cases. CONCLUSIONS: Histology revealing dermal or intragranuloma oedema on a background of leprosy granuloma favours the diagnosis of lepra reaction. A careful analysis of subtle variations in the cells constituting the granuloma may aid in differentiating between upgrading T1R, downgrading T1R or T1R without upgrading or downgrading. Histology can also be useful in distinguishing T2R from T1R, in the absence of typical erythema nodosum leprosum (ENL) lesions. Neutrophils are the major inflammatory cells in the former where as lymphocytes or macrophages predominate in the latter. We recommend that histopathological analysis should form an integral part of the evaluation of all lepra reactions.

Hanseníase e estigma / Leprosy and stigma

Representações sociais são compreendidas como estruturas dinâmicas que regulam as escolhas e ações dos sujeitos e dos grupos em diferentes situações da vida, em especial nos episódios de adoecimento.Raras são as doenças em que, como na lepra, se encontra tão evidenciada a associação entre doença e estigma, deformidade física e condenação moral.Com o objetivo de comparar as representações sociais de uma geração de pacientes que passou pela internação compulsória com o diagnóstico de leprae outra mais tarde tratada ambulatorialmente com o diagnóstico de hanseníase, indaga-se em que medida permanecem invariáveis alguns dos traços da milenar representação estigmatizante da lepra, apesar das mudanças havidas na denominação e na compreensão da natureza e do tratamento da doença.

Social representations are understood as dynamic structures that regulate the choices and actions of individuals and groups in different situations of life,especially in episodes related to sickness. In few diseases is the association between the illness and the stigmata, and between the physical deformity and the moral conviction, as clear as in leprosy. In order to compare the social representations of a generation of patients subjected to compulsory confinement under a diagnosis of leprosy with those of a generation of outpatients diagnosed with Hansen’s disease, this work asks to what extend some aspects of the historically stigmatizing representation of leprosy persist to the day, despite the changes in the denomination and in the understanding of the nature and the treatmentof the disease.

Topical corticosteroid abuse on the face: a prospective, multicenter study of dermatology outpatients.

BACKGROUND: Abuse of topical corticosteroids (TC), especially over the face, is prevalent worldwide, including in India. Data about the magnitude of this problem in our country is lacking. AIMS: The aims of this study were to ascertain the demographics, magnitude and clinical features of TC misuse on the face in the dermatology outpatient department (OPD) attendees in order to raise awareness about this problem and to analyze its causes. METHODS: This was a prospective multicenter questionnaire-based clinical study conducted at 12 dermatology centers nationwide. Patients with relevant facial dermatoses reporting to the investigator were asked about their current use of over-the-counter topical formulations and a structured questionnaire applied in case the same was confirmed to be TC. RESULTS: A total of 2926 patients with facial dermatoses were screened, of which 433 (14.8%) were using TC. TC was used as a fairness/general purpose cream or aftershave in 126 (29%) and in 104 (24%) for acne. Steroid combinations were used by 258 (59.6%). Potent and super-potent TC were significantly (P = 0.05) more frequently used by the rural/suburban population. The younger age groups used more potent formulations. A non-physician recommendation for TC use was obtainable in 257 (59.3%) patients. Of these, 232 (90.3%) were for potent/super-potent steroids. Among 176 physician prescriptions, 78 (44.3%) were from non-dermatologists. All non-physician prescriptions and 146 (83%) physician prescriptions for TC were inappropriately refilled. Adverse effects were seen in 392 (90.5%) TC users. Acne/exacerbation of acne was the most common adverse effect. CONCLUSIONS: TC misuse in patients with facial dermatoses is quite common, and most of this use is unwarranted. Use as a fairness cream is the most common indication in this cohort. LIMITATIONS: This was an OPD-based study and, therefore, it may or may not accurately reflect the community data.

Standard guidelines for care: sclerotherapy in dermatology.

DEFINITION: Sclerotherapy is defined as the targeted elimination of small vessels, varicose veins and vascular anomalies by the injection of a sclerosant. The aim of sclerotherapy is to damage the vessel wall and transform it into a fibrous cord that cannot be recanalized. It is a simple, cost-effective, efficacious and esthetically acceptable modality for both therapeutic and esthetic purposes. INDICATIONS: Therapeutic indications include varicose veins and vascular malformations. Esthetic indications include telangiectasias and reticular veins. In the management of varicose veins, it may need to be combined with other surgical methods of treatment, such as ligation of the saphenofemoral junction, stab ligation of perforators and stripping. A surgical opinion may be necessary. METHODOLOGY: A thorough knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the venous system of the legs, basic principles of venous insufficiency, methods of diagnosis and, in addition, uses, mechanisms of action and complications of sclerosing agents and proper compression techniques are important pre-requisites to successful sclerotherapy. Although various sclerosing agents are available, polidoconal and sodium tetradecyl sulfate are most commonly used. More recently, these sclerosants have been used in microfoam form for increased efficacy. The basic principle of a successful sclerotherapy technique is the use of an optimal volume and concentration of the sclerosant according to the size of the vessel. The sclerosant is injected carefully into the vessel and compression is applied. CONTRAINDICATIONS: Contraindications include superficial and deep venous thrombosis, sapheno-femoral junction incompetence, pregnancy, myocardial decompensation, migraine, hypercoagulable state, serious systemic illness, dependency edema, immobility, arterial disease, diabetes mellitus and allergic reactions to sclerosants. COMPLICATIONS: While sclerotherapy is usually a safe procedure, complications may occur due to inappropriate patient selection or improper injection techniques. The complications may be acute or delayed. Complications include hyperpigmentation, matting, local urticaria, cutaneous necrosis, microthrombi, accidental intra-arterial injection, phlebitis, deep vein thrombosis, thromboembolism, scintillating scotomas, nerve damage and allergic reactions. PHYSICIAN QUALIFICATION: Sclerotherapy may be administered by a surgeon or dermatologist who has acquired adequate training during post-graduation or through recognized fellowships and workshops dedicated to sclerotherapy. He should have an adequate knowledge of the anatomy of the venous system, be able to diagnose and manage venous disease and its associated consequences as well as possess the necessary skills to perform the procedures, understand the appropriate indications and limitations, technique modifications and management of the potential adverse sequelae associated with sclerotherapy and also understand the pharmacology of the sclerosing solutions. FACILITY: The procedure may be performed in the physician's procedure room.

Iatrogenic stigma in outpatient treatment for Hansen's disease (leprosy) in Brazil.

This paper explores how iatrogenic stigma, or stigma that is produced through a patient's encounter with physicians or with biomedicine in general, might emerge in outpatient treatment for Hansen's disease, or leprosy. Based on in-depth interviews with people affected by Hansen's disease and observations conducted at several public health clinics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, this research identified several aspects of the biomedical encounter that generated or contributed to stigma, either felt or enacted. Also noted in the research were positive examples of techniques used by physicians and health care workers for minimizing or circumventing stigma. The paper touches upon several topics, such as culturally mediated responses to medication side effects and communication between health care workers and patients, that might be salient or useful for health educators and others who are attempting to reduce health-related stigma.