Electrochemical biosensors for neglected tropical diseases: A review.

A group of infectious and parasitic diseases with prevalence in tropical and subtropical regions of the planet, especially in places with difficult access, internal conflicts, poverty, and low visibility from the government and health agencies are classified as neglected tropical diseases. While some well-intentioned isolated groups are making the difference on a global scale, the number of new cases and deaths is still alarming. The development and employment of low-cost, miniaturized, and easy-to-use devices as biosensors could be the key to fast diagnosis in such areas leading to a better treatment to further eradication of such diseases. Therefore, this review contains useful information regarding the development of such devices in the past ten years (2010-2020). Guided by the updated list from the World Health Organization, the work evaluated the new trends in the biosensor field applied to the early detection of neglected tropical diseases, the efficiencies of the devices compared to the traditional techniques, and the applicability on-site for local distribution. So, we focus on Malaria, Chagas, Leishmaniasis, Dengue, Zika, Chikungunya, Schistosomiasis, Leprosy, Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), Lymphatic filariasis, and Rabies. Few papers were found concerning such diseases and there is no available commercial device in the market. The works contain information regarding the development of point-of-care devices, but there are only at proof of concepts stage so far. Details of electrode modification and construction of electrochemical biosensors were summarized in Tables. The demand for the eradication of neglected tropical diseases is increasing. The use of biosensors is pivotal for the cause, but appliable devices are scarce. The information present in this review can be useful for further development of biosensors in the hope of helping the world combat these deadly diseases.

[History of human epidemic and endemic diseases in the southwest Indian Ocean]. / Histoire des épidémies et des endémoépidémies humaines dans le sud-ouest de l'océan Indien.

Smallpox has been known in the Mascarene Islands since 1729, and in 1898, the vaccinogenic and anti-rabies Institute of Tananarive, the future Pasteur Institute of Madagascar, was created to combat it. Cholera first arrived in the Mascarenes in 1819, but did not affect the Comoros Islands and Madagascar until the current pandemic. Bubonic plague has beset the ports of Madagascar and the Mascarenes since 1898. Girard and Robic developed the anti-plague vaccine in 1931 at the Pasteur Institute of Madagascar. The Mascarenes lost their reputation as Eden when malaria arrived in 1841, and this disease remains prominent in Madagascar and Comoros. Leprosy has been known in La Réunion since 1726 and is still very present in Mayotte, Anjouan, and Madagascar. Leptospirosis is a public health problem, except in Madagascar and the Comoros. Dengue, chikungunya, and Rift Valley fever are also present. HIV/AIDS is not a major concern, except in Mauritius, where it was spread by injection drug use, in the Seychelles and in Madagascar's largest cities. Madagascar is the principal site worldwide of chromoblastomycosis, first described there in 1914.

Neglected tropical diseases of Oceania: review of their prevalence, distribution, and opportunities for control.

Among Oceania's population of 35 million people, the greatest number living in poverty currently live in Papua New Guinea (PNG), Fiji, Vanuatu, and the Solomon Islands. These impoverished populations are at high risk for selected NTDs, including Necator americanus hookworm infection, strongyloidiasis, lymphatic filariasis (LF), balantidiasis, yaws, trachoma, leprosy, and scabies, in addition to outbreaks of dengue and other arboviral infections including Japanese encephalitis virus infection. PNG stands out for having the largest number of cases and highest prevalence for most of these NTDs. However, Australia's Aboriginal population also suffers from a range of significant NTDs. Through the Pacific Programme to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis, enormous strides have been made in eliminating LF in Oceania through programs of mass drug administration (MDA), although LF remains widespread in PNG. There are opportunities to scale up MDA for PNG's major NTDs, which could be accomplished through an integrated package that combines albendazole, ivermectin, diethylcarbamazine, and azithromycin, in a program of national control. Australia's Aboriginal population may benefit from appropriately integrated MDA into primary health care systems. Several emerging viral NTDs remain important threats to the region.

Neglected tropical diseases of the Middle East and North Africa: review of their prevalence, distribution, and opportunities for control.

The neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) are highly endemic but patchily distributed among the 20 countries and almost 400 million people of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, and disproportionately affect an estimated 65 million people living on less than US$2 per day. Egypt has the largest number of people living in poverty of any MENA nation, while Yemen has the highest prevalence of people living in poverty. These two nations stand out for having suffered the highest rates of many NTDs, including the soil-transmitted nematode infections, filarial infections, schistosomiasis, fascioliasis, leprosy, and trachoma, although they should be recognized for recent measures aimed at NTD control. Leishmaniasis, especially cutaneous leishmaniasis, is endemic in Syria, Iran, Iraq, Libya, Morocco, and elsewhere in the region. Both zoonotic (Leishmania major) and anthroponotic (Leishmania tropica) forms are endemic in MENA in rural arid regions and urban regions, respectively. Other endemic zoonotic NTDs include cystic echinococcosis, fascioliasis, and brucellosis. Dengue is endemic in Saudi Arabia, where Rift Valley fever and Alkhurma hemorrhagic fever have also emerged. Great strides have been made towards elimination of several endemic NTDs, including lymphatic filariasis in Egypt and Yemen; schistosomiasis in Iran, Morocco, and Oman; and trachoma in Morocco, Algeria, Iran, Libya, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, and the United Arab Emirates. A particularly noteworthy achievement is the long battle waged against schistosomiasis in Egypt, where prevalence has been brought down by regular praziquantel treatment. Conflict and human and animal migrations are key social determinants in preventing the control or elimination of NTDs in the MENA, while local political will, strengthened international and intersectoral cooperative efforts for surveillance, mass drug administration, and vaccination are essential for elimination.

Enlarging the "Audacious Goal": elimination of the world's high prevalence neglected tropical diseases.

The high prevalence neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) exhibit a global disease burden that exceeds malaria, tuberculosis, and other better known global health conditions; they also represent a potent force in trapping the world's poorest people in poverty. Through extremely low cost national programs of disease mapping and mass drug administration (MDA) for the seven most common NTDs, integrated NTD control and elimination efforts are now in place in more than 14 countries through the support of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the British Department for International Development (DFID), and the Global Network for NTDs and its partners. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that in 2008 some 670 million people in 75 countries received NTD treatments through these and other sponsored programs. With continued successes the next decade could witness the global elimination of blinding trachoma, human Africa trypanosomiasis (HAT), lymphatic filariasis (LF), onchocerciasis, trachoma, and leprosy as public health problems, in addition to the eradication of dracunculiasis. For other high prevalence NTDs, including hookworm infection, schistosomiasis, Chagas disease and leishmaniasis, new drugs and vaccines may still be required. Increasingly it is recognized that the high prevalence NTDs exhibit extensive geographic overlap and polyparasitism is commonly found throughout the world's low income countries. Therefore, global elimination will also require integrated packages of drugs together with vaccine-linked chemotherapy. Ultimately, the global elimination of the high prevalence NTDs will require continued large-scale support from the U.S. Government and selected European governments, however, the emerging market economies, such as Brazil, China, India, Mexico, and Nigeria, and wealthy countries in the Middle East will also have to substantially contribute.

[Status report on public health in Mauritius in 2009]. / Situation et enjeux sanitaires à l'île Maurice en 2009.

Mauritius is an island nation off the coast of Africa in the southwestern Indian Ocean. Improved socio-sanitation conditions over the past years have dramatically decreased the incidence of tropical diseases to levels comparable with those observed in developed countries. Some tropical illnesses including malaria, schistosomiasis, cysticercosis and lymphatic filariasis have been eradicated. Others such as amibiasis, typhoid fever and leprosy have become rare. However, because of the island's geographical proximity to countries with uncontrolled and suboptimal socio-sanitation conditions and its humid subtropical climate, there is a continued risk for certain vector transmitted tropical diseases such as Chikungunya and dengue. In addition, the incidence of HIV infection and AIDS has been rising rapidly since 2004 and tuberculosis remains a public health problem. Better living conditions have also been accompanied by an increase in cardiovascular and metabolic diseases that, along with cancer, are now the main causes of morbidity and mortality.

Neglected tropical diseases.

INTRODUCTION: The neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) are infectious diseases that principally impact the world's poorest people. They have been neglected for decades, initially as part of a general disregard for the developing world, and more recently due to the intensity of focus on HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria. SOURCES OF DATA: Primary research and review articles were selected for inclusion using searches of PubMed and our existing collections. RESULTS: There have been recent notable successes in NTD control. Dracunculiasis is approaching eradication. Leprosy and onchocerciasis are in decline. There are ambitious plans to eliminate trachoma and lymphatic filariasis. Investment in NTD control has high rates of economic return. CONCLUSION: Although there are proven strategies to control several NTDs, these diseases continue to cause a massive burden of morbidity. There is urgent need for more basic and operational research, drug and vaccine development, and greater prioritization by governments and international agencies.

Neglected tropical diseases in Brazil.

Poverty is intrinsically related to the incidence of Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs). The main countries that have the lowest human development indices (HDI) and the highest burdens of NTDs are located in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Among these countries is Brazil, which is ranked 70th in HDI. Nine out of the ten NTDs established by the World Health Organization (WHO) are present in Brazil. Leishmaniasis, tuberculosis, dengue fever and leprosy are present over almost the entire Brazilian territory. More than 90% of malaria cases occur in the Northern region of the country, and lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis occur in outbreaks in a particular region. The North and Northeast regions of Brazil have the lowest HDIs and the highest rates of NTDs. These diseases are considered neglected because there is not important investment in projects for the development of new drugs and vaccines and existing programs to control these diseases are not sufficient. Another problem related to NTDs is co-infection with HIV, which favors the occurrence of severe clinical manifestations and therapeutic failure. In this article, we describe the status of the main NTDs currently occurring in Brazil and relate them to the HDI and poverty.

Neglected tropical diseases in Brazil / Doenças tropicais negligenciadas no Brasil

Poverty is intrinsically related to the incidence of Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs). The main countries that have the lowest human development indices (HDI) and the highest burdens of NTDs are located in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Among these countries is Brazil, which is ranked 70th in HDI. Nine out of the ten NTDs established by the World Health Organization (WHO) are present in Brazil. Leishmaniasis, tuberculosis, dengue fever and leprosy are present over almost the entire Brazilian territory. More than 90 percent of malaria cases occur in the Northern region of the country, and lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis occur in outbreaks in a particular region. The North and Northeast regions of Brazil have the lowest HDIs and the highest rates of NTDs. These diseases are considered neglected because there is not important investment in projects for the development of new drugs and vaccines and existing programs to control these diseases are not sufficient. Another problem related to NTDs is co-infection with HIV, which favors the occurrence of severe clinical manifestations and therapeutic failure. In this article, we describe the status of the main NTDs currently occurring in Brazil and relate them to the HDI and poverty.

A pobreza está intrinsicamente relacionada com a ocorrência de doenças tropicais negligenciadas (DTNs). Os principais países com os menores índices de desenvolvimento humano (IDH) e a maior carga de DTNs estão nas regiões tropicais e subtropicais do globo terrestre. O Brasil é o 70º país no ranking do IDH e concentra nove das 10 principais doenças tropicais consideradas negligenciadas pela OMS. Leishmanioses, tuberculose, dengue e hanseníase ocorrem em quase todo o território do Brasil. Mais de 90 por cento dos casos de malária ocorrem na região norte e há surtos de filariose linfática e oncocercose. As regiões norte e nordeste apresentam o menor IDH e concentram o maior número das DTNs. Essas doenças são consideradas negligenciadas devido à falta de investimento no desenvolvimento de novas drogas e vacinas e também pela pouca eficácia dos programas de controle. Um problema preocupante em relação às DTNs é a co-infecção com HIV, que favorece manifestações clínicas graves e falência terapêutica. Neste artigo, a situação das principais DTNs no Brasil é descrita e correlacionada com o IDH e a pobreza.

Biology-based mapping of vector-borne parasites by geographic information systems and remote sensing.

Application of growing degree day-water budget analysis and satellite climatology to vector-borne parasites will be reviewed to demonstrate the value of using the unique thermal-hydrological preferences and limits of tolerance of individual parasite-vector systems to define the environmental niche of disease agents in the landscape by modern geospatial analysis methods. Applications of geospatial modeling will be illustrated by examples on fascioliasis, malaria, leprosy and leishmaniasis.

Adolpho Lutz and the origins of medical entomology in Brazil.

Adolpho Lutz (1855-1940) formed a bridge between the Bahian Tropicalist School and post-Mansonian medicine. Before taking over as head of the São Paulo Bacteriological Institute (1893), Lutz traveled through a variety of regions and delved into various disciplines. In the 1880s, he was already arguing that leprosy was transmitted by mosquitoes. Carbuncles, cholera, and typhoid fever were then the accepted models for investigating the etiology of infectious diseases. Following the discovery of how malaria was transmitted, attention turned to hematophagous diptera. Physicians, bacteriologists, zoologists, and veterinarians reshaped the network of actors involved in the 'hunt' for the agents and transmitters of diseases, as they began relying on analogies with malaria and yellow fever. Edwin Ray Lankester, director of the British Museum (Natural History), launched then a worldwide investigation into species that might be linked to human disease. The species described by Lutz and his proposed classification system were vital to Frederick Theobald's fundamental work in medical entomology, published in the early twentieth century. In 1908, Lutz brought with him to the Oswaldo Cruz Institute a remarkable quantity of research and experiments in all branches of the newly created "tropical medicine," devoted especially to entomology.

[Systematic search for parasites among leprosy patients in Mali]. / Recherche systématique de parasites chez les lépreux au Mali.

Practice of multidrug therapy in leprosy (combination Dapsone + Rifampicine + Clofazimine) established since 1981, has significantly reduced the incidence of the disease. However, immunosuppression due to treatment of multi-drugs therapy induced adverse reactions with glucocorticoid and the change in host immune response due to the leprosy itself, might increase the risk of parasitic infections. To test this hypothesis, we carried out a case-control study at the "Institut Marchoux" in Bamako. Stool and urine samples from all patients included in the study were examined for parasites identification. In addition, we performed thick and thin blood film to identify malaria infection and skin biopsy (snip) to detect onchocerciasis. A total of 121 cases of leprosy and 219 controls aged 10-84 years old were included in the study from March 1999 to February 2000. Sixty two percent (n = 121) of cases were treated with glucocorticoid. The prevalence of infection due to Entamoeba coli and Entamoeba histolytica were higher in cases than in controls (p = 0.02). The prevalence of infection due to hookworms was higher in cases than in controls. There was no difference of the infections to the other intestinal parasites. Three cases of cryptosporidiosis and one case of isosporosis were observed in leprosy group vs none in the control group. There was no significant difference between cases and controls with regard to prevalence of Schistosoma haematobium, Trichomonas vaginalis and Onchocera volvulus. The prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum was 4.9% (6/121) in the leprosy case and 7.8% (17/219) in the control group. In conclusion, despite the corticotherapy and immunosuppression due to leprosy, there was no difference in prevalence of pathogenic parasites. Entomoeba coli, Entamoeba histolytica which have significantly higher prevalence among the cases were not pathogen therefore there was no higher risk of severe intestinal parasitosis among the cases of leprosy. Treatment with glycocorticoid in patients with leprosy did not suggest any impact on the prevalence of this parasitic infections. In addition, multidrug therapy did not show any effect on the carriage of Plasmodium falciparum.

Recherche systematique de parasites chez les lepreux au Mali / Systematic search for parasites among patients with leprosy in Mali

Practice of multidrug therapy in leprosy (combination Dapsone + Rifampicine + Clofazimine) established since 1981, has significantly reduced the incidence of the disease. However, immunosuppression due to treatment of multi-drugs therapy induced adverse reactions with glucocorticoid and the change in host immune response due to the leprosy itself, might increase the risk of parasitic infections. To test this hypothesis, we carried out a case-control study at the "Institut Marchoux" in Bamako. Stool and urine samples from all patients included in the study were examined for parasites identification. In addition, we performed thick and thin blood film to identify malaria infection and skin biopsy (snip) to detect onchocerciasis. A total of 121 cases of leprosy and 219 controls aged 10-84 years old were included in the study from March 1999 to February 2000. Sixty two percent (n = 121) of cases were treated with glucocorticoid. The prevalence of infection due to Entamoeba coli and Entamoeba histolytica were higher in cases than in controls (p = 0.02). The prevalence of infection due to hookworms was higher in cases than in controls. There was no difference of the infections to the other intestinal parasites. Three cases of cryptosporidiosis and one case of isosporosis were observed in leprosy group vs none in the control group. There was no significant difference between cases and controls with regard to prevalence of Schistosoma haematobium, Trichomonas vaginalis and Onchocera volvulus. The prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum was 4.9% (6/121) in the leprosy case and 7.8% (17/219) in the control group. In conclusion, despite the corticotherapy and immunosuppression due to leprosy, there was no difference in prevalence of pathogenic parasites. Entomoeba coli, Entamoeba histolytica which have significantly higher prevalence among the cases were not pathogen therefore there was no higher risk of severe intestinal parasitosis among the cases of leprosy. Treatment with glycocorticoid in patients with leprosy did not suggest any impact on the prevalence of this parasitic infections. In addition, multidrug therapy did not show any effect on the carriage of Plasmodium falciparum.

The Córdoba caliphate and infectious diseases

Durante il Califfato di Cordova e negli anni immediatamente successivi vi fu una intensa fioritura di studi medici, come viene testimoniato dai numerosi documenti relative anche a parecchie malattie di origine microbica quali: tetatno, gangrena, avvelenamenti e tossinfezioni alimentari, colera, peste, meningite, diarrea, dissenteria, infezioni della bocca e dei denti, pustole e foruncoli, infezioni di ferite, impetigine, tonsillite, erisipela, polmonite, infezioni delle vie urinaire, infezioni sessualmente transmesse, otite, congiuntivite, tigna, mughetto, malaria, teniasi, infestazione da pulci, scabbia, vaiolo, morbillo, tracoma, raffreddori, poliomielite e rabbia. Esistono importanti saggi sulla natura contagiosa di queste malattie e sui rimedi terapeutici. I contributi dottrinali maggiormente pregevoli dell'epoca furono dati da autorevoli medici quali Isaac, Arib ibn Said, Abulcasis, Averroè, Maimonide e Al-Gafiqi.

Aspectos epidemiológicos, sociais e sanitários em áreas do médio Solimöes: I - Estudo das localidades de Säo Francisco do Laranjal, Aranaí e Säo Lázaro do Surubim, município de Coari, Amazonas / Epidemiological, social and sanitary aspects in area of Médio Solimöes: I - Study of localities of Säo Francisco do Laranjal, Aranaí and Säo Lázaro do Surubim, municipality of Coari, State of Amazonas

Um estudo seccional foi realizado em 1991 nas localidades de Säo Francisco do Laranjal, Aranaí e Säo Lázaro, no município de Coari, localizado no Médio Solimöes, no Estado do Amazonas, envolvendo 406 pessoas residentes, visando determinar as condiçöes sociais e sanitárias e indicaçöes epidemiológicos e laboratoriais específicos sobre a prevalência de anemia, parasitoses intestinais, malária, toxoplasmose, hepatite B e hanseníase. No inquérito foram aplicadas duas fichas padronizadas, uma domiciliar para avaliaçäo das condiçöes econômicas e sanitárias e outra individual para anamnese e exame físico. De cada pessoa foi solicitado amostra de fezes para exames pelos métodos de Lutz (sedimentaçäo) e de Baerman, e colhido sangue para dosagem de hemoglobina e micro-hematócrito, gota, gota expessa e esfregaço para a malária, sorologia para toxoplasmose e para hepatite por vírus B (HBsAg e Anti-HBs). A principal atividade econômica da populaçäo é a agricultura de subsistência e a pesca. Nas três localidades existe escola de 1§ grau mas em nenhuma existe posto de saúde. O índice de aglomeraçäo foi em média 5,3 pessoas por domicílio dos quais 84,2 por cento säo construídos de madeira e 77,5 por cento têm apenas um dormitório para toda a família. O abastecimento de água é feito diretamente do rio; em 89,4 por cento das casas näo existem instalaçöes sanitárias e em sua totalidade o lixo é abandonado ou jogado no próprio rio. A anemia esteve presente em 56,4 por cento dos examinados, 16,2 por cento com menos de 10g/Hg por cento. O exame de fezes revelou 81,9 por cento com um ou mais parasitos (72,6 por cento com mais de um parasito), com predomínio do Ascaris lumbricoides. Chama a atençäo a E. histolytica com 15,6 por cento, diagnósticada com métodos näo específicos. Surpeendentemente todas as lâminas foram negativas para malária; 65,8 por cento dos soros foram reagentes para toxoplasmose, 10,6 por cento com títulos iguais ou superiores a 1: 1024. No exame físico foram diagnósticados três casos de hanseníase (7,38 por 1.000). Apenas 1,9 por cento dos soros foram HBSAg positivos porém 34,3 por cento tinham anticorpos Anti-HBs