Impact of Co-Delivery of EGCG and Tuna Oil within a Broccoli Matrix on Human Gut Microbiota, Phenolic Metabolites and Short Chain Fatty Acids In Vitro.

(-)-Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) and tuna oil (TO) are beneficial bioactive compounds. EGCG, TO or a combination of, delivered by broccoli by-products (BBP), were added to an in vitro anaerobic fermentation system containing human fecal inocula to examine their ability to generate short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), metabolize EGCG and change the gut microbiota population (assessed by 16 S gene sequencing). Following 24 h fermentation, EGCG was hydrolyzed to (-)-epigallocatechin and gallic acid. EGCG significantly inhibited the production of SCFA (p < 0.05). Total SCFA in facal slurries with BBP or TO-BBP (48-49 µmol/mL) were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than the negative control with cellulose (21 µmol/mL). EGCG-BBP and TO-EGCG-BBP treatment increased the relative abundance of Gluconacetobacter, Klebsiella and Trabulsiella. BBP and TO-BBP showed the greatest potential for improving gut health with the growth promotion of high butyrate producers, including Collinsella aerofaciens, Bacillus coagulans and Lactobacillus reuteri.

Microencapsulated krill and tuna oil blend raises plasma long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid levels compared to tuna oil with similar increases in ileal contractility in rats.

Long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC n-3 PUFA) may be more bioavailable from krill oil compared to fish oil due to their phospholipid structure. We tested whether a microencapsulated krill and tuna oil blend (ME-TOKO) provided greater LC n-3 PUFA bioavailability, improved blood lipid profiles and increased intestinal contractility compared to microencapsulated tuna oil (ME-TO). Rats were divided into three groups to receive isocaloric diets containing ME-TO, ME-TOKO and microencapsulated olive oil (ME-OO) at 0.3 or 2 g/100 g for 4 weeks. Final body and organ weights, feed intake and waste output were similar. ME-TOKO rats had higher plasma total LC n-3 PUFA levels compared to ME-TO, but liver LC n-3 PUFA levels and plasma triglyceride and cholesterol levels were similar in non-fasted rats. Diets containing 2% ME-TO and ME-TOKO also showed similar increases in ileal contractility. In summary, ME-TO bioavailability of LC n-3 PUFA was similar to ME-TOKO.

Bioequivalence of n-3 fatty acids from microencapsulated fish oil formulations in human subjects.

Fish oil n-3 fatty acids (FA) have known health benefits. Microencapsulation stabilises and protects fish oil from oxidation, enabling its incorporation into foods. The aim of the present study was to compare the bioavailability of n-3 FA delivered as two microencapsulated fish oil-formulated powders or fish oil gel capsules (FOGC) taken with a flavoured milk in healthy participants. Formulation 1 (F1) composed of a heated mixture of milk protein-sugar as an encapsulant, and formulation 2 (F2) comprised a heated mixture of milk protein-sugar-resistant starch as an encapsulant. Participants consumed 4 g fish oil (approximately 1·0 g EPA and DHA equivalent per dose). Bioavailability was assessed acutely after ingestion of a single dose by measuring total plasma FA composition over a period of 48 h (n 14) using a randomised cross-over design, and over the short term for a period of 4 weeks using an unblinded parallel design (after daily supplementation) by measuring total plasma and erythrocyte FA composition at baseline and at 2 and 4 weeks (n 47). In the acute study, F1 greatly increased (% Δ) plasma EPA and total n-3 FA levels at 2 and 4 h and DHA levels at 4 h compared with FOGC. The time to reach maximal plasma values (T(max)) was shorter for F1 than for FOGC or F2. In the short-term study, increases in plasma and erythrocyte n-3 FA values were similar for all treatments and achieved an omega-3 index in the range of 5·8-6·3 % after 4 weeks. Overall, the results demonstrated human bioequivalence for microencapsulated fish oil powder compared with FOGC.

Nutrient-Dense Shelf-Stable Vegetable Powders and Extruded Snacks Made from Carrots and Broccoli.

Perishable fresh vegetables that do not meet cosmetic standards and by-products of processing are currently wasted. Broccoli and carrots were selected as model vegetables to demonstrate that they can be converted into nutrient-dense and shelf-stable food ingredients and formulated into convenient ready-to-eat snacks. Broccoli powder was a rich source of protein (30%) and dietary fibre (28%). Carrot powder had lower protein (6.5%) and dietary fibre content (24%) and was higher in sugar (47%) compared to broccoli powder (21%). Compared to the whole-vegetable powders, pomace powders were richer in fibre but had lower levels of total carbohydrates. There was a reduced expansion of extruded snacks with increasing levels of the vegetable component in the formulation. Processing and storage for 12 months at 25 °C or 40 °C resulted in changes in the measured soluble phenolic content. Changes during storage were dependent on the temperature and time. The changes may be in part due to the changes in the material properties of the matrix as a consequence of processing and storage, which affect extractability. The conversion of perishable vegetables and pomace into shelf-stable nutrient-dense food ingredients and products will reduce food loss and waste in the vegetable industry.

Oxidative stability of spray dried matcha-tuna oil powders.

Matcha-tuna oil and matcha-maltodextrin-tuna oil emulsions (25% oil, dry basis), formulated to have protein: carbohydrate ratios of 1:1.1, 1:2, 1:3 and 1:4, were spray dried. Confocal laser scanning microscopy showed effective emulsification of oil in all emulsions. All powders had low surface fat (2.9-4.2%). The addition of maltodextrin enhanced the bulk density and flowability of powders. Water sorption isotherms indicated that addition of maltodextrin increased water uptake of powders. The oxidative stability of the powders under accelerated conditions in an Oxipres® was highest for the matcha-tuna oil powder. Increasing amounts of added maltodextrin decreased oxidative stability. A comparison of levels of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in neat oil and tuna oil powders over 12 weeks at 40 °C, demonstrated that % remaining EPA and DHA were higher for all spray dried powders compared to neat oil. There was a significant correlation (p < 0.01) between the amount of the loss of tea catechins and % remaining EPA and DHA after 12 weeks at 40 °C, suggesting that the catechins had a major role in protecting the tuna oil against oxidation. This study has demonstrated the potential of using a whole biomass (matcha) as the single encapsulant for protection and delivery of omega-3 oils.

Broccoli byproducts for protection and co-delivery of EGCG and tuna oil.

Neat epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) has low bioavailability and tuna oil (TO) is prone to oxidation. Broccoli byproducts (BBP) were used for preparing TO-BBP (25% oil, dry basis) and TO-EGCG-BBP (20% oil and 20% EGCG, dry basis) powders. The gross composition and surface fat of powders and morphology of reconstituted emulsions were characterized. Oxipres® data (80 °C, 5 bar oxygen pressure) showed that the TO-EGCG-BBP formulation was more oxidatively stable [Induction period (IP) > 100 h] than TO-BBP (IP ~ 20 h). During in vitro digestion, 90% of EGCG was recovered in the whole intestinal digesta of the TO-EGCG-BBP formulation compared to 76% for the EGCG-BBP formulation and 66% for the neat EGCG. The use of BBP for co-delivering EGCG and TO increases oxidative stability of TO and improves EGCG stability during in vitro digestion. This study highlights the potential for formulating functional ingredient with BBP and contribute to food waste reduction.

Site specific delivery of microencapsulated fish oil to the gastrointestinal tract of the rat.

The aim of this study was to design food grade matrices to deliver microencapsulated fish oil to the large bowel of the rat where the potential exists to retard inflammation and cancer development. Digestion in simulated gastric fluid and intestinal fluid demonstrated that only 4-6% of oil was released from the following dried emulsion formulations: 50% fish oil encapsulated in heated casein-glucose-dried glucose syrup (1:1:1) (Cas-Glu-DGS-50); 25% fish oil in casein-modified resistant starch (Hylon VII) (1:1) (Cas-Hylon-25); or 25% fish oil in Cas-Glu-Hylon (1:1:1) (Cas-Glu-Hylon-25). A short-term gavage study (0-12 h) with fish oil and Cas-Glu-DGS-50 demonstrated the appearance of fish oil long chain (LC) n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) into the plasma indicating specific small intestinal absorption with little LC n-3 PUFA reaching the large bowel. In a 2-week-long term, daily gavage study, the bioavailability of fish oil and fish oil in Cas-Glu-DGS-50 or Cas-Hylon-25 demonstrated that fish oil and Cas-Glu-DGS-50 LC n-3 PUFA were incorporated into the tissue of the small intestine and colon, whereas Cas-Hylon-25 was resistant to degradation in the small intestine. The use of modified Hylon VII for targeted colonic delivery was confirmed in the final short-term gavage study (0-14 h) using Cas-Glu-Hylon-25 with [(14)C]-trilinolenin as a marker incorporated into the microcapsules, where up to 60% of the labeled oil reached the large bowel. Depending on the microencapsulating matrix employed, fish oil can be delivered selectively to the small intestine or to a high degree to the large bowel.

Comparison of the adsorption behaviour of catechin onto cellulose and pectin.

The adsorption behaviour of catechin onto cellulose and pectin was compared. The adsorption of catechin onto the two fibres involved an initial fast adsorption phase followed by a slower adsorption as the sites became saturated and the systems moved towards equilibrium. The adsorption capacity of pectin for catechin (20.71 ±â€¯2.24 mg/g) was significantly greater than that of cellulose (2.41 ±â€¯0.05 mg/g) after equilibration for 24 h at 37 °C. The Langmuir and Freundlich models were applied to obtain the quantitative information about the adsorption of catechins to pectin and cellulose. Thermodynamic data derived from the isothermal adsorption carried out at the temperatures of 27 °C, 32 °C, 37 °C and 42 °C suggested that the adsorption was spontaneous and the binding was driven predominantly by physisorption. Fluorescence experiments confirmed the adsorption of catechins onto cellulose and pectin. The results showed that catechin adsorption capacity and adsorption mechanism were different for pectin and cellulose.

In vitro degradation of curcuminoids by faecal bacteria: Influence of method of addition of curcuminoids into buttermilk yoghurt.

The mode of delivery of curcuminoids in the manufacture of curcuminoid-fortified buttermilk yoghurts was investigated. Curcuminoids were added prior to the addition of yoghurt cultures as powdered curcuminoids or curcuminoids pre-dissolved in ethanol and added to buttermilk prior to or after yoghurt manufacture. Only a small portion (4.6-7.7%) of the total added curcuminoids in yoghurts (299 mg/100 g) was bioaccessible after sequential exposure to simulated gastric and intestinal fluids compared to 10.9% when curcuminoids in ethanolic buffer were delivered. The total potential curcuminoid bioavailability (i.e. bioaccessible curcuminoids + curcuminoids converted by faecal bacteria) delivered in yoghurts was 19-34%, depending on the delivery formats, compared to 37% for curcuminoids delivered in ethanolic buffer. The addition of powdered curcuminoids into buttermilk prior to yoghurt fermentation had 33% total potential bioavailability. This study demonstrated the feasibility of preparing curcuminoid-fortified yoghurt for the functional food market.

Extrusion of a Curcuminoid-Enriched Oat Fiber-Corn-Based Snack Product.

Extruded snack products were made from an oat fiber-corn flour matrix fortified with 1.5% (w/w) curcuminoids (750 mg curcuminoids/100 g) to improve the solubility and stability of curcuminoids. The effects of extruder feed moisture content (21%, 28%, and 35%) and screw speed (200 and 300 rpm) on the extrusion parameters and physical properties of final snacks were investigated. Curcuminoids lost during extrusion and curcuminoids loss during subsequent drying of extrudates were analyzed, to separate the losses occurring in each unit process. Drying post extrusion (at 50 °C for 4 hr) was essential to obtain a crunchy shelf stable product (5% moisture). Curcuminoids loss during extrusion was from 17% to 84%, with high loss for the extrusion with low feed moisture content (21%). A further curcuminoids loss of 4% to 44% occurred during drying, with much higher loss for the extrudate with high moisture content. Total curcuminoids retained after extrusion and drying was 12% to 41% (59% to 88% loss), equivalent to 180 to 616 mg curcuminoids retained per 100 g snack, levels within recommended daily dose. Curcuminoids retained after drying was stable during 80 days of storage at 25 °C. The results highlighted the importance of understanding the impact of each unit process separately (for example, extrusion and drying) on the stability of curcuminoids for the development of healthier extruded snacks. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Extruded snacks products were developed by fortifying the snacks with oat fiber and curcuminoids in order to address the need for a healthy ready to eat food products. Some extrusion characteristics were selected to produce snack products which have favorable properties in terms of consumer acceptance.

Development of broccoli by-products as carriers for delivering EGCG.

Novel delivery systems for epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) were developed using broccoli by-products and their fractions as carriers. Puree and pomace from broccoli by-products had higher adsorption capacities for EGCG than juice at 25 °C (43.20 mg g-1, 39.47 mg g-1 and 25.22 mg g-1 dry weight for pomace, puree and juice respectively). Chemical sorption is the rate-controlling step for EGCG-broccoli interactions. Langmuir and Freundlich models well described the adsorption of EGCG onto puree and pomace. FTIR results indicated that EGCG-puree had stronger interaction than EGCG-pomace. When the same level of EGCG (∼26 mg) was added to different matrices, more EGCG (∼20%) was recovered from the in vitro digestion system of EGCG-loaded puree than from the EGCG-loaded pomace (14%) and neat EGCG (9%). The antioxidant capacity of the whole digesta was positively correlated with the EGCG levels. Broccoli by-products are promising carriers for delivering and stabilizing EGCG through gastrointestinal digestion.

Extrusion of apple pomace increases antioxidant activity upon in vitro digestion.

Apple pomace, a by-product of juice production, is a high-fibre, high-polyphenol functional food ingredient. Extrusion (barrel moisture 15%, 20% or 30%) of apple pomace, followed by drying, allows it to be supplied in a convenient form. Extrusion caused degradation of the apple pomace cell wall structure. Water solubility was significantly increased by extrusion but oil holding capacity was reduced. Total extractable polyphenols, measured as gallic acid equivalents, were reduced by extrusion (barrel moisture 30%) but were not affected by extrusion at lower barrel moisture contents (15% or 20%). However, individual sub-groups of extractable flavanols, flavonols, phenolic acids and dihydrochalcones were increased by extrusion. There was little effect of extrusion on the release of total polyphenols from the matrix into the supernatant, as measured by total extractable polyphenols (measured as gallic acid equivalents) released during in vitro digestion. There was a marked increase in total flavanols, phenolic acids and dihydrochalones released into the supernatant during the gastric phase but changes in flavonoids were less obvious. The changes in the bioaccessibility of individual polyphenols released during intestinal digestion were dependent on the type of polyphenol and extrusion conditions. The antioxidant activity, as measured using oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) of the bioaccessible nutrients released upon in vitro intestinal digestion, was significantly enhanced by extrusion (from 78.2 to 400-500 µmol Trolox equivalents per mL at the ileal phase). The increased ORAC may be attributed in part to the increased release of individual polyphenols.

Adsorption of catechin onto cellulose and its mechanism study: Kinetic models, characterization and molecular simulation.

Catechin, an important component of flavan-3-ol, and dietary fiber are both important ingredients with many associated health benefits. The adsorption of catechin onto various dietary fiber has been studied widely, most of the researches focus on the adsorption capacities of catechin under different fibers and the adsorption types by using adsorption models. However, little is known on the dynamic adsorption process and mechanism, including the adsorption sites, interaction types, and participant molecules. In this study, the adsorption behavior and mechanism of catechin onto cellulose were examined by the time function in combination with molecular simulation. The adsorption capacities of cellulose for catechin were 2.70 and 2.82 mg/g at pH 2.0 and 7.0, respectively. The adsorption process was fitted by three stage models (rapid adsorption, saturation, and equilibrium). The features of cellulose and catechin were characterized by FTIR to identify the functional groups in the adsorption. Molecular simulation revealed that the catechin was adsorbed onto the hydrophilic surface of cellulose rather than hydrophobic one, and that the total binding energy was -8.57 kcal/mol of the hydrophilic surface, which was due to Van der Waals' force and H-bond more than electrostatic force. Furthermore, the studies on isothermal adsorption combined with adsorption at various pH illustrated the main interaction between cellulose and catechin for the binding. This work assisted understanding of the adsorption of polyphenols on to insoluble dietary fiber and has the potential of applications in functional foods.

Effect of extrusion conditions on the physico-chemical properties and in vitro protein digestibility of canola meal.

Canola meal has potential as a high protein food ingredient. The extrusion-induced changes in color, pH, extractable protein and in vitro protein digestibility of canola meal under different extrusion conditions was assessed. The extrusion barrel moisture (24%, 30% or 36%) and screw kneading block length (0, 30 or 60mm) were used as independent process parameters. Extrusion at high barrel moisture (36%) favored protein aggregation resulting in lower extractable protein compared to extrusion at the lowest barrel moisture (24%). At lower barrel moisture contents (24% and 30%), a longer kneading block length increased extractable protein but this was not the case at 36% barrel moisture. Canola protein digestibility was improved upon extrusion at 30% barrel moisture but there was no significant change at lower (24%) or higher (36%) barrel moisture. The kneading block length of the screw had no significant effect on the canola protein digestibility within the same barrel moisture level. The relationship between the physico-chemical parameters and in vitro digestibility was examined. This study highlighted the complex interplay of extrusion processing variables that affect protein degradation and the interaction of components, with consequent effects on protein digestibility.

Physical properties and FTIR analysis of rice-oat flour and maize-oat flour based extruded food products containing olive pomace.

Olive pomace, a waste stream from olive oil processing, was fractionated by centrifugation to obtain a supernatant and a flesh-enriched fraction, and freeze dried to obtain a powder. The dried supernatant contained 5.8% moisture, 4.8% protein, 3.5% fat, 3.5% ash, 82.4% carbohydrate (including 17.2% dietary fiber) and polyphenols (2970mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/100g). The dried flesh-enriched fraction, contained 5.9% moisture, 13.4% protein, 14.2% fat, 3.5% ash, 63.1% carbohydrate (including 42.7% dietary fiber) and polyphenols (1960mg GAE/100g). The extruded products using rice-oat flour or maize-oat flour mixtures as the base were formulated to contain 5% or 10% olive pomace fractions (dry basis). The extruded products with added olive pomace fractions has higher fiber (2-7g/100g) and polyphenol contents (67-161mg GAE/100g) compared to the corresponding mixtures of rice-oat flour base (0.92g/100g fiber, 20mg GAE/100g) or maize-oat flour base (3.2g/100g fiber, 20mg GAE/100g) without olive pomace fractions. Addition of olive pomace fractions reduced the die pressure and specific mechanical energy during extrusion and resulted in lower radial expansion in the extruded product. The impact of the addition of olive pomace fraction on physical characteristics of the extruded product is higher for rice-oat flour base than maize-oat flour base. The underlining mechanism was explained by FTIR analysis. FTIR showed that there were significant changes in the carbohydrate components and the structure of the proteins on extrusion, with consequent effects on the expansion and density of the extruded product. This study showed the feasibility of preparing fiber and polyphenol enriched extruded products by incorporation of olive pomace. This shows the potential of recovery and diversion of edible components from waste streams of olive oil processing for formulation of extruded products.

Enhanced Bioaccessibility of Curcuminoids in Buttermilk Yogurt in Comparison to Curcuminoids in Aqueous Dispersions.

Curcuminoids have low bioavailability due to low aqueous solubility. We compared the bioaccessibility of curcuminoids delivered in buttermilk yogurt to that of curcuminoid powder in an aqueous dispersion. Buttermilk containing added curcuminoids (300 mg/100 g, 0.3% w/w) was used for yogurt manufacture. We measured percentage of curcuminoids remaining in yogurts after manufacture and after exposure to simulated gastrointestinal fluids, and the in vitro bioaccessibility of the curcuminoids. Curcuminoids were stable during yogurt manufacture. At the end of in vitro digestion, approximately 11% of the curcuminoids delivered in yogurt was degraded compared to <1% for curcuminoids in an aqueous dispersion. However, curcuminoids delivered in yogurt was 15-fold more bioaccessible than curcuminoids in aqueous dispersion. The small change in yogurt properties (decrease in total lactic acid bacteria counts of <1 log and increased viscosity) on addition of curcuminoids has to be balanced against the benefits of increased bioaccessibility of curcuminoids when delivered in yogurts.

Challenges and solutions to incorporation of nutraceuticals in foods.

Manufacturers often cannot simply add a nutraceutical to a food when formulating functional foods that have acceptable sensory appeal as well as the desired health benefits. The appropriate application of microencapsulation for stabilizing nutraceuticals enables their effective delivery through food. Careful design of the delivery system helps protect sensitive nutraceuticals from the environment and processing stresses encountered during food manufacture, and prevents undesirable interactions of the nutraceutical with components in the food matrix. Microencapsulation technologies overcome hurdles associated with the successful delivery of nutraceuticals in healthy foods if due consideration is given to challenges at all stages throughout the supply chain. This encompasses stabilizing and protecting nutraceuticals from degradation in ingredient formats, during processing, in the final food product, and during intestinal transit until they are released at the desired site in the gastrointestinal tract to impart their targeted health effects.

Bioaccessibility of curcuminoids in buttermilk in simulated gastrointestinal digestion models.

In vitro gastrointestinal digestion models were used to investigate bioaccessibility of curcuminoids delivered with buttermilk. The percentage of solubilised curcuminoids that partitioned into the micelle in aqueous phase was determined. In fasted states (0-2.5 mg bile extract/mL sample), the bioaccessibility of curcuminoids (2% v/v ethanol) ranged from 16.3% to 26.7% in buttermilk, and from 11.4% to 18.7% with neat curcuminoids. In fed states (10-40 mg bile extract/mL sample), the bioaccessibility of curcuminoids in buttermilk was 21.3% (no ethanol) and ranged from 37.1% to 69.2% (2% v/v ethanol), while for neat curcuminoids bioaccessibility was 14.1% (no ethanol), ranging from 45.6% to 79.6% (2% v/v ethanol). The in vitro bioaccessibility of curcuminoids was influenced by the presence of the carrier (buttermilk) and ethanol, and increased significantly with increasing amount of bile extract. Curcuminoids did not markedly influence the digestibility of protein or lipids. These findings demonstrated that buttermilk could be used as a carrier for curcuminoids especially if delivered with food.

Chronic administration of a microencapsulated probiotic enhances the bioavailability of orange juice flavanones in humans.

Orange juice (OJ) flavanones are bioactive polyphenols that are absorbed principally in the large intestine. Ingestion of probiotics has been associated with favorable changes in the colonic microflora. The present study examined the acute and chronic effects of orally administered Bifidobacterium longum R0175 on the colonic microflora and bioavailability of OJ flavanones in healthy volunteers. In an acute study volunteers drank OJ with and without the microencapsulated probiotic, whereas the chronic effects were examined when OJ was consumed after daily supplementation with the probiotic over 4 weeks. Bioavailability, assessed by 0-24h urinary excretion, was similar when OJ was consumed with and without acute probiotic intake. Hesperetin-O-glucuronides, naringenin-O-glucuronides, and hesperetin-3'-O-sulfate were the main urinary flavanone metabolites. The overall urinary excretion of these metabolites after OJ ingestion and acute probiotic intake corresponded to 22% of intake, whereas excretion of key colon-derived phenolic and aromatic acids was equivalent to 21% of the ingested OJ (poly)phenols. Acute OJ consumption after chronic probiotic intake over 4 weeks resulted in the excretion of 27% of flavanone intake, and excretion of selected phenolic acids also increased significantly to 43% of (poly)phenol intake, corresponding to an overall bioavailability of 70%. Neither the probiotic bacterial profiles of stools nor the stool moisture, weight, pH, or levels of short-chain fatty acids and phenols differed significantly between treatments. These findings highlight the positive effect of chronic, but not acute, intake of microencapsulated B. longum R0175 on the bioavailability of OJ flavanones.

Protection of epigallocatechin gallate against degradation during in vitro digestion using apple pomace as a carrier.

Apple pomace, a byproduct of the apple juice processing industry, may be used as a matrix for carrying phytochemicals. High-pressure processing (600 MPa for 5 min) or heat treatment (121 °C for 5 min) of wet apple pomace can increase the shelf life of the pomace but may influence the carrier properties of the wet pomace for phytochemicals. We examined the effects of these processing treatments on the adsorption capacity of apple pomace for epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) and the stability of EGCG in simulated gastrointestinal fluids in vitro. Both processing treatments reduced the adsorption capacity but protected EGCG against degradation in the simulated gastrointestinal fluids. The extent of EGCG degradation in simulated gastrointestinal fluids in vitro in the presence of apple pomace was not influenced by gastric and intestinal enzymes, suggesting that pH had the overriding influence on EGCG degradation. This study showed the potential of apple pomace as a carrier for EGCG in functional food applications.