Novel pathogenic variants in Tubulin Tyrosine Like 5 (TTLL5) associated with cone-dominant retinal dystrophies and an abnormal optical coherence tomography phenotype.

Purpose: Autosomal recessive cone and cone-rod dystrophies (CD/CRD) are inherited forms of vison loss. Here, we report on and correlate the clinical phenotypes with the underlying genetic mutations. Methods: Clinical information was collected from subjects, including a family history with a chart review. They underwent a full ophthalmic examination, including best-corrected visual acuity, direct and indirect ophthalmoscopy, color vision testing, color fundus photography, contrast sensitivity, autofluorescence, and spectral domain-optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT), and full-field electroretinography. Next-generation panel-based genetic testing was used to identify DNA variants in subject buccal swab samples. Results: Genetic testing in two patients revealed three novel variants in the TTLL5 gene associated with CD/CRD: two missense variants (c.1433G>A;p.(Arg478Gln), c.241C>G;p.(Leu81Val), and one loss-of-function variant (c.2384_2387del;p.(Ala795Valfs*9). Based on in-silico analysis, structural modeling, and comparison to previously reported mutations, these novel variants are very likely to be disease-causing mutations. Combining retinal imaging with SD-OCT analysis, we observed an unusual sheen in the CD/CRD phenotypes. Conclusion: Based on the protein domain location of novel TTLL5 variants and the localization of TTLL5 to the connecting cilium, we conclude that the CD/CRD disease phenotype is characterized as a ciliopathy caused by protein tracking dysfunction. This initially affects cone photoreceptors, where photoreceptor cilia express a high level of TTLL5, but extends to rod photoreceptors over time. Fundus photography correlated with SD-OCT imaging suggests that the macular sheen characteristically seen with TTLL5 mutations derives from the photoreceptor's outer segments at the posterior pole.

An update on the genetics of ocular coloboma.

Ocular coloboma is an uncommon, but often severe, sight-threatening condition that can be identified from birth. This congenital anomaly is thought to be caused by maldevelopment of optic fissure closure during early eye morphogenesis. It has been causally linked to both inherited (genetic) and environmental influences. In particular, as a consequence of work to identify genetic causes of coloboma, new molecular pathways that control optic fissure closure have now been identified. Many more regulatory mechanisms still await better understanding to inform on the development of potential therapies for patients with this malformation. This review provides an update of known coloboma genes, the pathways they influence and how best to manage the condition. In the age of precision medicine, determining the underlying genetic cause in any given patient is of high importance.

Prospects and modalities for the treatment of genetic ocular anomalies.

Over the last three decades, genetic studies have made great strides toward the identification of genes and genetic mechanisms underlying congenital disorders of the eye. However, despite the vast knowledge available this has not translated into treatments to prevent or repair the damage in the clinical setting. Recently, new research in technologies, such as tissue regeneration, next generation designer drugs, and genome editing, have become available for some genetic disorders that might be applicable to congenital ocular diseases in the near future. Here, we provide an overview of the emerging therapeutic modalities and the future prospects they hold for debilitating ocular defects.

NLRP3 inflammasome activation drives bystander cone photoreceptor cell death in a P23H rhodopsin model of retinal degeneration.

The molecular signaling leading to cell death in hereditary neurological diseases such as retinal degeneration is incompletely understood. Previous neuroprotective studies have focused on apoptotic pathways; however, incomplete suppression of cell death with apoptosis inhibitors suggests that other mechanisms are at play. Here, we report that different signaling pathways are activated in rod and cone photoreceptors in the P23H rhodopsin mutant rat, a model representing one of the commonest forms of retinal degeneration. Up-regulation of the RIP1/RIP3/DRP1 axis and markedly improved survival with necrostatin-1 treatment highlighted necroptosis as a major cell-death pathway in degenerating rod photoreceptors. Conversely, up-regulation of NLRP3 and caspase-1, expression of mature IL-1ß and IL-18 and improved cell survival with N-acetylcysteine treatment suggested that inflammasome activation and pyroptosis was the major cause of cone cell death. This was confirmed by generation of the P23H mutation on an Nlrp3-deficient background, which preserved cone viability. Furthermore, Brilliant Blue G treatment inhibited inflammasome activation, indicating that the 'bystander cell death' phenomenon was mediated through the P2RX7 cell-surface receptor. Here, we identify a new pathway in cones for bystander cell death, a phenomenon important in development and disease in many biological systems. In other retinal degeneration models different cell-death pathways are activated, which suggests that the particular pathways that are triggered are to some extent genotype-specific. This also implies that neuroprotective strategies to limit retinal degeneration need to be customized; thus, different combinations of inhibitors will be needed to target the specific pathways in any given disease.

Anolis carolinensis as a model to understand the molecular and cellular basis of foveal development.

The fovea is an anatomical specialization of the central retina containing closely packed cone-photoreceptors providing an area of high acuity vision in humans and primates. Despite its key role in the clarity of vision, little is known about the molecular and cellular basis of foveal development, due to the absence of a foveal structure in commonly used laboratory animal models. Of the amniotes the retina in birds of prey and some reptiles do exhibit a typical foveal structure, but they have not been studied in the context of foveal development due to lack of availability of embryonic tissue, lack of captive breeding programs, and limited genomic information. However, the genome for the diurnal bifoveate reptile species Anolis carolinensis (green anole) was recently published and it is possible to collect embryos from this species in captivity. Here, we tested the feasibility of using the anole as a model to study foveal development. Eyes were collected at various stages of development for histological analysis, immunofluorescence, and apoptosis. We show that at embryonic stage (ES) 10 there is peak ganglion cell density at the incipient central foveal region and a single row of cone photoreceptor nuclei. At ES17 the foveal pit begins to form and at this stage there are 3-4 rows of cone nuclei. Post-hatching a further increase in cone density and lengthening of inner and outer segments is observed. A yellowish pigment was seen in the adult central foveal region, but not in the temporal fovea. At ES14 Pax6 was localized across the entire retina, but was more prominent in the ganglion cell layer (GCL) and the part of the inner nuclear layer (INL) containing amacrine cell bodies. However, at ES17 Pax6 expression in the ganglion cells of the central retina was markedly reduced. Bioinformatic analysis revealed that 86% of human candidate foveal hypoplasia genes had an orthologous gene or DNA sequence in the green anole. These findings provide the first insight into foveal morphogenesis in the green anole and suggest that it could be a very useful model for investigating the molecular signals driving foveal development, and thus inform on human foveal development and disease.

An ex vivo gene therapy approach in X-linked retinoschisis.

PURPOSE: X-linked retinoschisis (XLRS) is juvenile-onset macular degeneration caused by haploinsufficiency of the extracellular cell adhesion protein retinoschisin (RS1). RS1 mutations can lead to either a non-functional protein or the absence of protein secretion, and it has been established that extracellular deficiency of RS1 is the underlying cause of the phenotype. Therefore, we hypothesized that an ex vivo gene therapy strategy could be used to deliver sufficient extracellular RS1 to reverse the phenotype seen in XLRS. Here, we used adipose-derived, syngeneic mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) that were genetically modified to secrete human RS1 and then delivered these cells by intravitreal injection to the retina of the Rs1h knockout mouse model of XLRS. METHODS: MSCs were electroporated with two transgene expression systems (cytomegalovirus (CMV)-controlled constitutive and doxycycline-induced Tet-On controlled inducible), both driving expression of human RS1 cDNA. The stably transfected cells, using either constitutive mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) or inducible MSC cassettes, were assayed for their RS1 secretion profile. For single injection studies, 100,000 genetically modified MSCs were injected into the vitreous cavity of the Rs1h knockout mouse eye at P21, and data were recorded at 2, 4, and 8 weeks post-injection. The control groups received either unmodified MSCs or vehicle injection. For the multiple injection studies, the mice received intravitreal MSC injections at P21, P60, and P90 with data collection at P120. For the single- and multiple-injection studies, the outcomes were measured with electroretinography, optokinetic tracking responses (OKT), histology, and immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: Two lines of genetically modified MSCs were established and found to secrete RS1 at a rate of 8 ng/million cells/day. Following intravitreal injection, RS1-expressing MSCs were found mainly in the inner retinal layers. Two weeks after a single injection of MSCs, the area of the schisis cavities was reduced by 65% with constitutive MSCs and by 83% with inducible MSCs, demonstrating improved inner nuclear layer architecture. This benefit was maintained up to 8 weeks post-injection and corresponded to a significant improvement in the electroretinogram (ERG) b-/a-wave ratio at 8 weeks (2.6 inducible MSCs; 1.4 untreated eyes, p<0.05). At 4 months after multiple injections, the schisis cavity areas were reduced by 78% for inducible MSCs and constitutive MSCs, more photoreceptor nuclei were present (700/µm constitutive MSC; 750/µm inducible MSC; 383/µm untreated), and the ERG b-wave was significantly improved (threefold higher with constitutive MSCs and twofold higher with inducible MSCs) compared to the untreated control group. CONCLUSIONS: These results establish that extracellular delivery of RS1 rescues the structural and functional deficits in the Rs1h knockout mouse model and that this ex vivo gene therapy approach can inhibit progression of disease. This proof-of-principle work suggests that other inherited retinal degenerations caused by a deficiency of extracellular matrix proteins could be targeted by this strategy.

RD3 gene delivery restores guanylate cyclase localization and rescues photoreceptors in the Rd3 mouse model of Leber congenital amaurosis 12.

RD3 is a 23 kDa protein implicated in the stable expression of guanylate cyclase in photoreceptor cells. Truncation mutations are responsible for photoreceptor degeneration and severe early-onset vision loss in Leber congenital amaurosis 12 (LCA12) patients, the rd3 mouse and the rcd2 collie. To further investigate the role of RD3 in photoreceptors and explore gene therapy as a potential treatment for LCA12, we delivered adeno-associated viral vector (AAV8) with a Y733F capsid mutation and containing the mouse Rd3 complementary DNA (cDNA) under the control of the human rhodopsin kinase promoter to photoreceptors of 14-day-old Rb(11.13)4Bnr/J and In (5)30Rk/J strains of rd3 mice by subretinal injections. Strong RD3 transgene expression led to the translocation of guanylate cyclase from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to rod and cone outer segments (OSs) as visualized by immunofluorescence microscopy. Guanylate cyclase expression and localization coincided with the survival of rod and cone photoreceptors for at least 7 months. Rod and cone visual function was restored in the In (5)30Rk/J strain of rd3 mice as measured by electroretinography (ERG), but only rod function was recovered in the Rb(11.13)4Bnr/J strain, suggesting that the latter may have another defect in cone phototransduction. These studies indicate that RD3 plays an essential role in the exit of guanylate cyclase from the ER and its trafficking to photoreceptor OSs and provide a 'proof of concept' for AAV-mediated gene therapy as a potential therapeutic treatment for LCA12.

Pax2 regulates a fadd-dependent molecular switch that drives tissue fusion during eye development.

Tissue fusion is an essential morphogenetic mechanism in development, playing a fundamental role in developing neural tube, palate and the optic fissure. Disruption of genes associated with the tissue fusion can lead to congenital malformations, such as spina bifida, cleft lip/palate and ocular coloboma. For instance, the Pax2 transcription factor is required for optic fissure closure, although the mechanism of Pax2 action leading to tissue fusion remains elusive. This lack of information defining how transcription factors drive tissue morphogenesis at the cellular level is hampering new treatments options. Through loss- and gain-of-function analysis, we now establish that pax2 in combination with vax2 directly regulate the fas-associated death domain (fadd) gene. In the presence of fadd, cell proliferation is restricted in the developing eye through a caspase-dependent pathway. However, the loss of fadd results in a proliferation defect and concomitant activation of the necroptosis pathway through RIP1/RIP3 activity, leading to an abnormal open fissure. Inhibition of RIP1 with the small molecule drug necrostatin-1 rescues the pax2 eye fusion defect, thereby overcoming the underlying genetic defect. Thus, fadd has an essential physiological function in protecting the developing optic fissure neuroepithelium from RIP3-dependent necroptosis. This study demonstrates the molecular hierarchies that regulate a cellular switch between proliferation and the apoptotic and necroptotic cell death pathways, which in combination drive tissue morphogenesis. Furthermore, our data suggest that future therapeutic strategies may be based on small molecule drugs that can bypass the gene defects causing common congenital tissue fusion defects.

Asymmetric preservation of choroidal pigmentation simulating choroidal nevus in two siblings with Waardenburg syndrome type 2A.

INTRODUCTION: In addition to sensorineural hearing loss, Waardenburg Syndrome (WS) may present with variable pigmentation of skin and choroid, which may simulate other life-threating conditions (e.g. melanoma). CASE REPORT: Two siblings ostensibly presented with unilateral choroidal pigmentary abnormalities concerning for choroidal tumour. Serial ophthalmic examination documented no lesion growth (base or height) whilst the apparent syndromic features (i.e. iris hypochromia, profound sensorineural hearing loss, SNHL), family history (autosomal dominant inheritance) and positive genetic testing (pathogenic MITF variant) led to a revised diagnosis of Waardenburg Syndrome type 2A. CONCLUSION: Sectoral preservation of choroidal pigmentation in WS is rarely associated with choroidal malignancy. Awareness of syndromic features (e.g. SNHL) and access to genetic testing may facilitate early accurate diagnosis (i.e. allay concern for malignancy), enable treatment of modifiable features (e.g. SNHL) and identify other affected relatives.

IGF-1 Mediated Neuroprotective Effects of Olfactory-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells on Auditory Hair Cells.

IMPORTANCE: Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have the capability of providing ongoing paracrine support to degenerating tissues. Since MSCs can be extracted from a broad range of tissues, their specific surface marker profiles and growth factor secretions can be different. We hypothesized that MSCs derived from different sources might also have different neuroprotective potential. OBJECTIVE: In this study, we extracted MSCs from rodent olfactory mucosa and compared their neuroprotective effects on auditory hair cell survival with MSCs extracted from rodent adipose tissue. METHODS: Organ of Corti explants were dissected from 41 cochlea and incubated with olfactory mesenchymal stem cells (OMSCs) and adipose mesenchymal stem cells (AMSCs). After 72 hours, Corti explants were fixed, stained, and hair cells counted. Growth factor concentrations were determined in the supernatant and cell lysate using Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). RESULTS: Co-culturing of organ of Corti explants with OMSCs resulted in a significant increase in inner and outer hair cell stereocilia survival, compared to control. Comparisons between both stem cell lines, showed that co-culturing with OMSCs resulted in superior inner and outer hair cell stereocilia survival rates over co-culturing with AMSCs. Assessment of growth factor secretions revealed that the OMSCs secrete significant amounts of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). Co-culturing OMSCs with organ of Corti explants resulted in a 10-fold increase in IGF-1 level compared to control, and their secretion was 2 to 3 times higher compared to the AMSCs. CONCLUSIONS: This study has shown that OMSCs may mitigate auditory hair cell stereocilia degeneration. Their neuroprotective effects may, at least partially, be ascribed to their enhanced IGF-1 secretory abilities compared to AMSCs.

Influence of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles on Innate and Genetically Modified Secretion Profiles of Mesenchymal Stem Cells.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have well-established paracrine effects that are proving to be therapeutically useful. This potential is based on the ability of MSCs to secrete a range of neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory molecules. Previous work in our laboratory has demonstrated that intravenous injection of MSCs, treated with superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticle fluidMAG-D resulted in enhanced levels of glial-derived neurotrophic factor, ciliary neurotrophic factor, hepatocyte growth factor and interleukin-10 in the dystrophic rat retina. In this present study we investigated whether the concentration of fluidMAG-D in cell culture media affects the secretion of these four molecules in vitro. In addition, we assessed the effect of fluidMAG-D concentration on retinoschisin secretion from genetically modified MSCs. ELISA-assayed secretion of these molecules was measured using escalating concentrations of fluidMAG-D which resulted in MSC iron loads of 0, 7, 120, or 274 pg iron oxide per cell respectively. Our results demonstrated glial-derived neurotrophic factor and hepatocyte growth factor secretion was significantly decreased but only at the 96 hour's time-point whereas no statistically significant effect was seen with ciliary neurotrophic factor secretion. Whereas no effect was observed on culture media concentrations of retinoschisin with increasing iron oxide load, a statistically significant increase in cell lysate retinoschisin concentration (p = 0.01) was observed suggesting that increasing fluidMAG-D concentration did increase retinoschisin production but this did not lead to greater secretion. We hypothesize that higher concentrations of iron-oxide nanoparticle fluidMAG-D have an effect on the innate ability of MSCs to secrete therapeutically useful molecules and also on secretion from genetically modified cells. Further work is required to verify these in vitro finding using in vivo model systems.

Molecular genetic diagnostics for inherited retinal dystrophies in the clinical setting.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the success of diagnostic genetic testing in inherited retinal dystrophy (IRD) patients in the clinical setting. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort analysis. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 446 consecutive participants from diverse ethnic backgrounds living in western Canada. METHODS: Clinical information was collected from participants, including family history, and they underwent a full ophthalmic examination with chart review. Those with a suspected IRD were offered panel-based genetic testing of 351 genes between March 1, 2019, and February 28, 2022. The main outcome measure was effect of the genetic testing results on clinical diagnosis. RESULTS: Genetic testing established a conclusive molecular diagnosis in 249 of 446 cases (55.8%), a clearly negative result in 90 of 446 cases (20.1%), and an inconclusive diagnosis in 108 of 446 cases (24.2%). Conclusive disease-causing variants were identified in 69 genes, and the most commonly affected genes were ABCA4 (31 variants), USH2A (25 variants), and RPGR (19 variants). The inconclusive group included likely novel autosomal dominant variants or a pathogenic variant with a variant of uncertain significance in the same gene for a recessive phenotype. Notably, an inconclusive molecular genetic diagnosis was seen in as many as 47.3% of East Asian participants with an outer retinal dystrophy. CONCLUSIONS: This study represents the largest review of molecular genetic testing in IRDs in Canada. That negative or inconclusive results obtained in approximately 45% of cases demonstrates that there is an important need for new research into molecular genetic causes of IRDs. This is particularly true in addressing the problem of interpreting a variant of uncertain significance in ethnic minorities.

Pharmacological enhancement of ex vivo gene therapy neuroprotection in a rodent model of retinal degeneration.

AIMS: We have previously shown the benefits of cell-based delivery of neuroprotection in a rodent model of retinitis pigmentosa (RP). In order to maximise the effectiveness of this approach, we hypothesised that this could be augmented by combination with an aminoglycoside known to limit the abnormal RNA translation seen in this model. METHODS: A rhodopsin TgN S334ter-4 rat model of RP underwent daily subcutaneous injection of 12.5 µg/g gentamicin from postnatal day 5 (P5). At P21, selected rats also underwent intravitreal injection of cells genetically engineered to oversecrete glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor. Histological imaging was undertaken to evaluate photoreceptor survival at P70 and compared with images from untreated TgN S334ter-4 rats and control Sprague-Dawley rats. RESULTS: Statistically significant (p < 0.05) improvements in outer retinal indices were seen with this combination strategy when compared with results in rats treated with individual therapies alone. This improvement was most apparent in the peripheral retina, where the greatest degeneration was observed. CONCLUSIONS: We have shown that the combination of neuroprotection plus aminoglycoside read-through in an animal model of retinal degeneration improved the histological appearance of the retina such that it was statistically indistinguishable from unaffected controls. Further functional and longitudinal studies of this approach are warranted.

Gene-specific differential response to anti-apoptotic therapies in zebrafish models of ocular coloboma.

PURPOSE: We recently demonstrated that molecular therapy using aminoglycosides can overcome the underlying genetic defect in two zebrafish models of ocular coloboma and showed abnormal cell death to be a key feature associated with the optic fissure closure defects. In further studies to identify molecular therapies for this common congenital malformation, we now examine the effects of anti-apoptotic compounds in zebrafish models of ocular coloboma in vivo. METHODS: Two ocular coloboma zebrafish lines (pax2.1/noi(tu29a) and lamb1/gup(m189)) were exposed to diferuloylmethane (curcumin) or benzyloxycarbonyl-Val-Ala-Asp(Ome)-fluoromethylketone (zVAD-fmk; a pan-caspase inhibitor) for up to 8 days post-fertilization. The effects of these compounds were assessed by morphology, histology, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining and western blot analysis. RESULTS: The size of the coloboma in gup zebrafish mutants treated with diferuloylmethane was greatly reduced. In treated mutants a reduction in TUNEL staining and a 67% decrease in activated caspase-3 protein were observed. The release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria into the cytosol was reduced fourfold by in vivo diferuloylmethane treatment, suggesting that the drug was acting to inhibit the intrinsic apoptotic pathway. Inhibition of caspases directly with zVAD-fmk also resulted in a similar reduction in coloboma phenotype. Treatment with either diferuloylmethane or zVAD-fmk resulted in a statistically significant 1.4 fold increase in length of survival of these mutant zebrafish (p<0.001), which normally succumb to the lethal genetic mutation. In contrast, the coloboma phenotype in noi zebrafish mutants did not respond to either diferuloylmethane or zVAD-fmk exposure, even though inhibition of apoptotic cell death was observed by a reduction in TUNEL staining. CONCLUSIONS: The differential sensitivity to anti-apoptotic agents in lamb1-deficient and pax2.1-deficient zebrafish models, suggests that apoptotic cell death is not a final common pathway in all ocular coloboma genotypes. When considering anti-cell death therapies for ocular colobomatous defects attention should be paid to the genotype under investigation.

A review of diseases of the retina for neurologists.

Diseases of the retina are common and numerous, with causes ranging over inherited, inflammatory, vascular, infectious, neoplastic, traumatic, toxic, and idiopathic etiologies. A key issue in the diagnosis of retinal disease is the duration of symptoms, which can be acute, chronic, or acute presentations of chronic disease. Clinical examination with direct ophthalmoscopy or, even better, biomicroscopy with a slit lamp and condensing lens, is a key component of diagnosis, which can be enhanced through investigational methods such as fluorescein angiography, optical coherence tomography, or electroretinography. Consideration of the history, visual acuity and visual field, and fundoscopic findings is usually sufficient to determine whether patients need referral on an emergency, urgent, or routine basis. Emphasis is given to vascular disease, age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, genetic eye disease, and retinal detachment.

Photoreceptor precursor cell integration into rodent retina after treatment with novel glycopeptide PKX-001.

Cell replacement therapy is emerging as an important approach in novel treatments for neurodegenerative diseases. Many problems remain, in particular improvements are needed in the survival of transplanted cells and increasing functional integration into host tissue. These problems arise because of immune rejection, suboptimal precursor cell type, trauma during cell transplantation, and toxic compounds released by dying tissues and nutritional deficiencies. We recently developed an ex vivo system to facilitate identification of factors contributing to the death of transplanted neuronal (photoreceptor) and showed 2.8-fold improvement in transplant cell survival after pretreatment with a novel glycopeptide (PKX-001). In this study, we extended these studies to look at cell survival, maturation, and functional integration in an in vivo rat model of rhodopsin-mutant retinitis pigmentosa causing blindness. We found that only when human photoreceptor precursor cells were preincubated with PKX-001 prior to transplantation, did the cells integrate and mature into cone photoreceptors expressing S-opsin or L/M opsin. In addition, ribbon synapses were observed in the transplanted cells suggesting they were making synaptic connections with the host tissue. Furthermore, optokinetic tracking and electroretinography responses in vivo were significantly improved compared to cell transplants without PKX-001 pre-treatment. These data demonstrate that PKX-001 promotes significant long-term stem cell survival in vivo, providing a platform for further investigation towards the clinical application to repair damaged or diseased retina.

Short-wavelength light sensitivity of circadian, pupillary, and visual awareness in humans lacking an outer retina.

As the ear has dual functions for audition and balance, the eye has a dual role in detecting light for a wide range of behavioral and physiological functions separate from sight. These responses are driven primarily by stimulation of photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (pRGCs) that are most sensitive to short-wavelength ( approximately 480 nm) blue light and remain functional in the absence of rods and cones. We examined the spectral sensitivity of non-image-forming responses in two profoundly blind subjects lacking functional rods and cones (one male, 56 yr old; one female, 87 yr old). In the male subject, we found that short-wavelength light preferentially suppressed melatonin, reset the circadian pacemaker, and directly enhanced alertness compared to 555 nm exposure, which is the peak sensitivity of the photopic visual system. In an action spectrum for pupillary constriction, the female subject exhibited a peak spectral sensitivity (lambda(max)) of 480 nm, matching that of the pRGCs but not that of the rods and cones. This subject was also able to correctly report a threshold short-wavelength stimulus ( approximately 480 nm) but not other wavelengths. Collectively these data show that pRGCs contribute to both circadian physiology and rudimentary visual awareness in humans and challenge the assumption that rod- and cone-based photoreception mediate all "visual" responses to light.

Translational bypass of nonsense mutations in zebrafish rep1, pax2.1 and lamb1 highlights a viable therapeutic option for untreatable genetic eye disease.

The extensive molecular genetic heterogeneity seen with inherited eye disease is a major barrier to the development of gene-based therapeutics. The underlying molecular pathology in a considerable proportion of these diseases however are nonsense mutations leading to premature termination codons. A therapeutic intervention targeted at this abnormality would therefore potentially be relevant to a wide range of inherited eye diseases. We have taken advantage of the ability of aminoglycoside drugs to suppress such nonsense mutations and partially restore full-length, functional protein in a zebrafish model of choroideraemia (chm(ru848); juvenile chorio-retinal degeneration) and in two models of ocular coloboma (noi(tu29a) and gup(m189); congenital optic fissure closure defects). In vitro cell-based assays showed significant readthrough with two drugs, gentamicin and paromomycin, which was confirmed by western blot and in vitro prenylation assays. The presence of either aminoglycoside during zebrafish development in vivo showed remarkable prevention of mutant ocular phenotypes in each model and a reduction in multisystemic defects leading to a 1.5-1.7-fold increase in survival. We also identified a significant reduction in abnormal cell death shown by TUNEL assay. To test the hypothesis that optic fissure closure was apoptosis-dependent, the anti-apoptotic agents, curcumin and zVAD-fmk, were tested in gup(m189) embryos. Both drugs were found to reduce the size of the coloboma, providing molecular evidence that cell death is required for optic fissure remodelling. These findings draw attention to the value of zebrafish models of eye disease as useful preclinical drug screening tools in studies to identify molecular mechanisms amenable to therapeutic intervention.

RNA-based therapies in animal models of Leber congenital amaurosis causing blindness.

Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA) is a severe, genetically heterogeneous recessive eye disease in which ~ 35% of gene mutations are in-frame nonsense mutations coding for loss-of-function premature termination codons (PTCs) in mRNA. Nonsense suppression therapy allows read-through of PTCs leading to production of full-length protein. A limitation of nonsense suppression is that nonsense-mediated decay (NMD) degrades PTC-containing RNA transcripts. The purpose of this study was to determine whether inhibition of NMD could improve nonsense suppression efficacy in vivo. Using a high-throughput approach in the recessive cep290 zebrafish model of LCA (cep290;Q1223X), we first tested the NMD inhibitor Amlexanox in combination with the nonsense suppression drug Ataluren. We observed reduced retinal cell death and improved visual function. With these positive data, we next investigated whether this strategy was also applicable across species in two mammalian models: Rd12 (rpe65;R44X) and Rd3 (rd3;R107X) mouse models of LCA. In the Rd12 model, cell death was reduced, RPE65 protein was produced, and in vivo visual function testing was improved. We establish for the first time that the mechanism of action of Amlexanox in Rd12 retina was through reduced UPF1 phosphorylation. In the Rd3 model, however, no beneficial effect was observed with Ataluren alone or in combination with Amlexanox. This variation in response establishes that some forms of nonsense mutation LCA can be targeted by RNA therapies, but that this needs to be verified for each genotype. The implementation of precision medicine by identifying better responders to specific drugs is essential for development of validated retinal therapies.

Ex vivo gene therapy using intravitreal injection of GDNF-secreting mouse embryonic stem cells in a rat model of retinal degeneration.

PURPOSE: Safe and prolonged drug delivery to the retina is a key obstacle to overcome in the development of new medicines aimed at treating progressive retinal disease. We took advantage of the ability of embryonic stem cells to survive long-term in foreign tissue and used these cells to deliver neuroprotectant molecules to the retina of the rhodopsin TgN S334ter-4 rat model of retinitis pigmentosa (RP). METHODS: Mouse embryonic stem (mES) cells, derived from the pluripotent embryonic stem cell line E14TG2a, were genetically engineered to oversecrete the glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF). Cell suspensions, containing approximately 200,000 cells and expressing approximately 35ng/10(6) cells/24 h GDNF, were injected into the vitreous cavity of TgN S334ter rat eyes at postnatal day 21 (P21) without immunosuppression. Histological and immunofluorescence imaging was used to evaluate photoreceptor survival up to P90. Local (vitreous) and systemic (serum) concentrations of GDNF were determined and ocular side effects were monitored. RESULTS: Green fluorescent protein (GFP)-expressing mES cells were observed on the inner limiting membrane of the retina in retinal flatmounts up to P90. In cryostat sections at P45, some GFP-expressing cells had integrated into the inner retina, but did not migrate into the outer nuclear layer. After an initial lag period, the photoreceptor cell counts were significantly higher (p< or =0.05) in animals treated with GDNF-secreting mES cells than in untreated animals, principally in the peripheral retina. Several adverse side effects such as tractional detachments and areas of hyperplasia were seen in a minimal number of treated eyes. Abnormally high levels of GDNF in the peripheral circulation were also observed. CONCLUSIONS: ES cells engineered to secrete GDNF exerted a neuroprotective effect for at least three months on retinal structure in the TgN S334ter rat model of retinal degeneration. Immunosuppression was not required for this. Several adverse effects were identified which require further investigation to make cell-based delivery of neuroprotection a viable clinical strategy.