Chronic subthalamic nucleus stimulation and striatal D2 dopamine receptors in Parkinson's disease--A [(11)C]-raclopride PET study.

CONTEXT: Subthalamic nucleus (STN) stimulation mechanism of action remains a matter for debate. In animals, an increased striatal dopamine (DA) release due to STN stimulation has been reported. OBJECTIVE: To determine in Parkinson's disease (PD) patients using positron emission tomography (PET) and [11C]-Raclopride, whether STN stimulation induces a striatal DA release. METHODS: Nine PD patients with bilateral STN stimulation were enrolled and underwent two [11C]-Raclopride PET scans. The scans were randomly performed in off and on stimulation conditions. Striatal [11C]-Raclopride binding potential (BP) was calculated using regions of interest and statistical parametric mapping. RESULTS: For PD patients, the mean [(11C]-Raclopride BP (+/- SD) were, in Off stimulation condition: 1.7 +/- 0.3 for the right caudate nucleus, 1.8 +/- 0.4 for the left caudate nucleus, 2.6 +/- 0.5 for the right putamenand 2.6 +/- 0.5 for the left putamen. In On stimulation condition: 1.7 +/- 0.4 for the right caudate nucleus, 1.9 +/- 0.5 for the left caudate nucleus, 2.8 +/- 0.7 for the right putamen and 2.7 +/- 0.8 for the left putamen. No significant difference of BP related to the stimulation was noted. CONCLUSION: STN stimulation does not produce significant variations of striatal DA release as assessed by PET and [11C]-Raclopride.

Positron emission tomography in epileptogenic hypothalamic hamartomas.

Whether the intrinsic epileptogenicity of hypothalamic hamartomas (HH) is responsible for the entire clinical spectrum of epileptic, neuropsychological and behavioural disorders associated with HH, remains an open issue, in as much as morphologically similar HH can be associated with dramatically different seizure types and cognitive outcomes. The aim of this study was to investigate brain glucose metabolism in patients with epileptogenic HH, in an attempt to identify signs of focal cortical and subcortical dysfunction which might correlate with other clinical data. We have studied five patients with epileptogenic HH using [18F]-fluoro-desoxyglucose and positron emission tomography (FDG-PET). All our patients also underwent an optimal MRI and a video-EEG monitoring, as well as an intra-cranial EEG recording in one of them. The anatomical distribution of FDG-PET abnormalities was compared to that of interictal and ictal electroclinical findings. All five patients demonstrated focal hypometabolism, ipsilateral to the predominant EEG abnormalities and side of HH. Hypometabolic areas greatly varied between patients, but were grossly concordant with the cortical regions suspected to participate in the ictal discharges in each individual. Epileptogenic hypothalamic hamartomas are usually associated with focal cortical hypometabolism in regions which might participate in the overall HH-driven epileptic network. Whether these cortical abnormalities only reflect the propagation of ictal discharges, or a potentially independent seizure onset zone remains unknown.

Ventromedial thalamic neurons convey nociceptive signals from the whole body surface to the dorsolateral neocortex.

The somatosensory properties of ventromedial (VM) thalamic neurons were investigated in anesthetized rats by examining their responses to calibrated cutaneous stimuli. A population of neurons within the lateral part of the ventromedial thalamus (VMl) showed two peaks of activation after percutaneous electrical stimuli, regardless of which part of the body was stimulated. The early and late peaks were elicited by Adelta- and C-fiber activities with mean conduction velocities of 12.9 +/- 0.9 and 1 +/- 0.2 m/sec, respectively. These responses were strongly depressed or blocked after microinjections within the medullary subnucleus reticularis dorsalis of xylocaine or the NMDA antagonist MK-801. None of the VMl neurons responded to innocuous cutaneous or proprioceptive stimuli. In contrast, all these neurons responded to noxious mechanical and thermal stimulation of the limbs and showed monotonic increases in their discharges to increasingly strong noxious cutaneous stimuli. In addition, some VMl neurons were antidromically activated by stimulation in layer I of the dorsolateral frontal cortex. These findings suggest that the rat VMl conveys and encodes cutaneous nociceptive inputs from any part of the body surface to layer I of the dorsolateral neocortex. This reticulo-thalamo-cortical network may allow any signal of pain to gain access to widespread areas of the neocortex and thus help prime the cortex for attentional reactions and/or the coordination of motor responses.

Electrical stimulation of motor cortex for pain control: a combined PET-scan and electrophysiological study.

Although electrical stimulation of the precentral gyrus (MCS) is emerging as a promising technique for pain control, its mechanisms of action remain obscure, and its application largely empirical. Using positron emission tomography (PET) we studied regional changes in cerebral flood flow (rCBF) in 10 patients undergoing motor cortex stimulation for pain control, seven of whom also underwent somatosensory evoked potentials and nociceptive spinal reflex recordings. The most significant MCS-related increase in rCBF concerned the ventral-lateral thalamus, probably reflecting cortico-thalamic connections from motor areas. CBF increases were also observed in medial thalamus, anterior cingulate/orbitofrontal cortex, anterior insula and upper brainstem; conversely, no significant CBF changes appeared in motor areas beneath the stimulating electrode. Somatosensory evoked potentials from SI remained stable during MCS, and no rCBF changes were observed in somatosensory cortex during the procedure. Our results suggest that descending axons, rather than apical dendrites, are primarily activated by MCS, and highlight the thalamus as the key structure mediating functional MCS effects. A model of MCS action is proposed, whereby activation of thalamic nuclei directly connected with motor and premotor cortices would entail a cascade of synaptic events in pain-related structures receiving afferents from these nuclei, including the medial thalamus, anterior cingulate and upper brainstem. MCS could influence the affective-emotional component of chronic pain by way of cingulate/orbitofrontal activation, and lead to descending inhibition of pain impulses by activation of the brainstem, also suggested by attenuation of spinal flexion reflexes. In contrast, the hypothesis of somatosensory cortex activation by MCS could not be confirmed by our results.

Organization of cortical projections to the medullary subnucleus reticularis dorsalis: a retrograde and anterograde tracing study in the rat.

The distribution and organization of cortical projections to the subnucleus reticularis dorsalis (SRD), the neighboring cuneate nucleus (Cu), and trigeminal nucleus caudalis (Sp5C) were studied in the rat using microinjections of wheat germ agglutinin-apo horseradish peroxidase-gold and Biotin-Dextran. Cortical cells projecting to the caudal medulla were confined to the contralateral layer V with their descending axons crossing the midline at the level of pyramidal decussation. Cortical afferents to Sp5C originated from cells located mainly in the primary somatosensory cortex (S1) and the insular cortex, whereas cortical projections to the Cu originated mainly from the primary motor cortex (M1), the primary and secondary somatosensory cortex (S1 and S2). The SRD received dense cortical afferents from larger, widespread cortical areas: M1, M2, S1, S2, and the insular cortex. The existence of dense cortico-SRD connections supports the possibility of a pyramidal influence over SRD neurons, which might modify nociceptive information ascending to the cortex itself. This proposal is consistent with the fact that SRD efferents terminate densely in thalamic areas that influence sensorimotor cortical regions which in turn project to the SRD. Moreover, these corticofugal mechanisms could allow the cortex to select its own input by suppressing or augmenting transmission of signals through SRD-hindbrain/forebrain pathways or by coordinating activities in spino-SRD-spinal circuits and thus selecting the relevant information produced by the noxious stimulus.

Organization of diencephalic projections from the medullary subnucleus reticularis dorsalis and the adjacent cuneate nucleus: a retrograde and anterograde tracer study in the rat.

The distribution and organization of diencephalic projections from the subnucleus reticularis dorsalis (SRD) and the neighbouring cuneate nucleus (Cu) were studied in the rat by using microinjections of Phaseolus vulgaris leucoagglutinin in SRD and Cu and wheat germ agglutinin-apo horseradish peroxidase-gold in some selected thalamic areas. As previously reported, the efferent projections from the Cu were essentially contralateral and terminated mainly in the ventroposterolateral thalamic nucleus. Less dense terminals from the Cu were also observed in the posterior thalamic group, the ventral aspect of the zona incerta and the caudal and dorsal portion of the reuniens area. Retrograde tracer injections in the medial ventroposterolateral thalamic nucleus labeled numerous cells in the contralateral Cu, with a smaller number in the gracile nucleus. From the SRD, terminals were observed in the lateral aspect of the ventromedial thalamic nucleus, the lateral parafascicular area and, to a lesser extent, in the ventral aspect of the zona incerta and the core of the reuniens area. Retrograde tracer injections in the lateral part of the ventromedial thalamic nucleus labeled cells in the caudal medulla, many of which were located in the dorsal-most aspect of the SRD throughout its caudo-rostral extent. The existence of SRD-thalamic connections reinforces the idea that the caudal reticular formation is an important nociceptive relay to the thalamus. Our data shed new light on old hypotheses suggesting that, in addition to spino-thalamic pathways, spino-reticulo-thalamic pathways may play an important role in distributing pain signals to the forebrain.

The medullary subnucleus reticularis dorsalis (SRD) as a key link in both the transmission and modulation of pain signals.

The involvement of the dorsal part of the caudal medulla in both the transmission and modulation of pain is supported by recent electrophysiological and anatomical data. In this review, we analyse the features of a well-delimited area within the caudal-most aspect of the medulla, the subnucleus reticularis dorsalis (SRD) which plays a specific role in processing cutaneous and visceral nociceptive inputs. From a general viewpoint, the reciprocal connections between the caudal medulla and spinal cord suggest that this area is an important link in feedback loops which regulate spinal outflow. Moreover, the existence of SRD-thalamic connections put a new light on the role of spino-reticulo-thalamic circuits in pain transmission.

A controlled positron emission tomography study of obsessive and neutral auditory stimulation in obsessive-compulsive disorder with checking rituals.

Ten nondepressed patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) who were characterized by predominant checking rituals were compared with 10 age- and sex-matched control subjects. Hemispheric and regional cerebral blood flow levels (rCBF) were measured with positron emission tomography (H2 15O) across four conditions: rest, auditory stimulation with idiosyncratic normal or abnormal obsession, auditory stimulation with neutral verbal stimuli, and rest. Order of neutral and obsessive stimulation was randomized. Higher subjective responses to obsessive than to neutral stimulation were found in both groups; subjective response was higher in OCD patients when obsessive stimulation was presented first. A four-way analysis of variance (group x stimulation order x hemisphere x condition [neutral or obsessive stimulation]) was performed on stimulation minus rest normalized rCBF values. Control subjects had significantly higher rCBF in the thalamus and putamen. A trend toward higher rCBF in OCD patients was found in the superior temporal regions. When neutral stimulation was presented first, rCBF was significantly higher in the caudate region of control subjects. Obsessive stimulation was associated with higher rCBF than neutral stimulation in orbitofrontal regions in both groups of subjects. Under obsessive stimulation, superior temporal and orbitofrontal activities were correlated in OCD patients but not in control subjects. Our study suggests specific abnormalities of information processing in the basal ganglia and temporal structures of compulsive checkers.

Acupuncture-like stimulation induces a heterosegmental release of Met-enkephalin-like material in the rat spinal cord.

In order to investigate the effects induced by acupuncture on the activity of enkephalinergic neurons in the spinal cord, either the lumbar or the cervico-trigeminal area was perfused with artificial cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) (0.1 ml/min) in halothane-anaesthetized rats, and Met-enkephalin-like material (MELM) was measured in 0.5 ml fractions of the perfusates. The effects of manual acupuncture performed by a traditional Chinese acupuncturist at the 'Zusanli' point on the right hind limb were compared to the effects induced by acupuncture applied at a non-acupoint next to 'Zusanli.' The manipulation of needles either at the 'Zusanli' point or at the non-acupoint had no effect on the release of MELM from the lumbar area but significantly increased the release from the cervico-trigeminal zone. It is concluded that manual acupuncture triggers a heterosegmental activation of enkephalinergic neurones within the spinal cord and that this effect is non-specific in terms of the location of the stimulated point.

Acupuncture-evoked responses of subnucleus reticularis dorsalis neurons in the rat medulla.

Recordings were made from neurons in subnucleus reticularis dorsalis of the rat. Two populations of neurons could be distinguished: those with total nociceptive convergence which were driven by activating A delta- and C-fibers from any part of the body and those with partial nociceptive convergence which were driven by activating A delta-fibers from any part of the body or C-fibers from some, mainly contralateral, regions. The effects on subnucleus reticularis dorsalis neurons of manual acupuncture, performed by a traditional Chinese acupuncturist at the "Renzhong", "Sousanli", "Changqiang", and "Zusanli" acupoints and at a non-acupoint next to "Zusanli", were studied. Acupuncture stimulation for 30 s at the acupoints or the non-acupoint strongly excited all the total nociceptive convergence neurons tested; these neurons responded with a discharge of rapid onset which was often followed by after-discharges lasting for approximately 30-60 s. The majority but not all of the partial nociceptive convergence neurons responded to 30 s of acupuncture stimulation at the acupoints or the non-acupoint. This was especially the case when the stimulus was applied to contralateral or midline parts of the body. The potency of acupuncture as a means of activating subnucleus reticularis dorsalis neurons varied significantly with the area of the body being stimulated such that: contralateral greater than midline greater than ipsilateral areas. The levels of induced activity were of similar magnitude to those evoked by noxious mechanical stimuli applied under identical experimental conditions. No differences were found between the capacities to activate subnucleus reticularis dorsalis neurons of the "Zusanli" point and the adjacent non-acupoint, no matter whether these were stimulated ipsi- or contralaterally; this suggests a lack of topographical specificity in the activation of these neurons. Since subnucleus reticularis dorsalis neurons are activated exclusively or preferentially by noxious inputs, it is concluded that the signals elicited by manual acupuncture travel through pathways responsible for the transmission of nociceptive information. Since acupuncture, a manoeuvre which is known to elicit widespread extrasegmental antinociceptive effects, activates subnucleus reticularis dorsalis neurons which, anatomically, send dense projections to the dorsal horn at all levels of the spinal cord, we would suggest that this structure may be involved not only in signalling pain but also in modulating pain by means of spino-reticulo-spinal feed-back mechanisms.

Acupuncture and diffuse noxious inhibitory controls: naloxone-reversible depression of activities of trigeminal convergent neurons.

Recordings were made from convergent neurons in trigeminal nucleus caudalis of the rat. These neurons could be activated by both innocuous and noxious mechanical stimuli applied to their excitatory receptive fields on the ipsilateral part of the muzzle. Percutaneous application of suprathreshold, 2 ms square-wave electrical stimuli to the centre of the excitatory field resulted in responses to A- and C-fibres being observed. The effects on these responses of manual acupuncture performed by a traditional Chinese acupuncturist at the "Zusanli" point on the right hindlimb were compared with the effects induced by acupuncture applied at a non-acupoint, next to "Zusanli". In addition, the effects of acupuncture were compared with the inhibitory effects evoked by noxious thermal stimulation of the left hindlimb on the responses of the same neurons. This last type of inhibition has been described previously by our group and termed diffuse noxious inhibitory controls. Acupuncture, either applied at "Zusanli" or at a non-acupoint and noxious thermal stimulation induced similar strong inhibitory effects on the C-fibre-evoked responses of trigeminal convergent neurons (77.9 +/- 4.4%; 72.5 +/- 4.6% and 78.5 +/- 3.6% inhibition, respectively) and these inhibitions were followed by long-lasting aftereffects. In addition, both the acupuncture- and noxious thermal stimulation-evoked inhibitions were significantly reduced by systemic naloxone (0.4 mg/kg, i.v.). Since the antinociceptive effects elicited by acupuncture (i) had a similar magnitude and time-course to those evoked by noxious thermal stimulation, (ii) exhibited a lack of topographical specificity and (iii) involved an opioidergic link, we would suggest that, at least in our experimental conditions, acupuncture manoeuvres trigger the neuronal mechanisms involved in diffuse noxious inhibitory controls.

Spontaneous and evoked release of met-enkephalin-like material from the spinal cord of arthritic rats in vivo.

Perfusion of the intrathecal space with artificial CSF was achieved in control and arthritic rats under halothane anaesthesia in order to collect the met-enkephalin-like material (MELM) released from the whole spinal cord. On the fourth week following the intradermal injection of Freund's adjuvant to induce arthritis, a marked reduction (-56%) in the spontaneous outflow of MELM was noted in arthritic rats. This effect did not involve changes in the degradation process of MELM, since it persisted when kelatorphan was added to the perfusing fluid in order to inhibit completely the peptidases acting on met-enkephalin. Raising the K+ concentration in the perfusing fluid from 2.4 to 40 mM, as well as moving the hind paws, produced a significant enhancement of MELM release which was (at least) as pronounced in arthritic as in control rats. These results suggest that the basal activity of spinal enkephalinergic neurones, but not that triggered by various stimuli, is reduced in arthritic rats.

Ascending pathways in the spinal cord involved in triggering of diffuse noxious inhibitory controls in the rat.

Recordings were made from convergent neurons in trigeminal nucleus caudalis of the rat. These neurons were activated by both innocuous and noxious mechanical stimuli applied to their excitatory receptive fields located on the ipsilateral part of the muzzle. Transcutaneous application of suprathreshold 2-ms square-wave electrical stimuli to the center of the excitatory field resulted in responses to C-fiber activation being observed (mean latencies 63.6 +/- 5.5 ms). This type of response was inhibited by applying noxious conditioning stimuli to heterotopic body areas, namely immersing either the left or right hindpaw in a 52 degrees C water bath. A virtually total block of the response was observed during the application of the noxious conditioning stimulus, and this was followed by long-lasting poststimulus effects. Such inhibitory processes have been termed diffuse noxious inhibitory controls (DNIC) (39, 40). The effects on these inhibitions of various transverse lesions of the cervical spinal cord were investigated in acute experiments; tests were performed before and at least 30 min after the spinal section. While the unconditioned C-fiber responses were unaltered, the inhibitory processes could be impaired by the cervical lesions, although these effects depended on the part of the cervical cord destroyed and the side of application of the conditioning stimulus. Lesioning dorsal, dorsolateral, and ventromedial parts of the cervical cord was found not to affect inhibitory processes triggered from either hindpaw. The overlapping of the regions of these ineffective lesions revealed that two remaining regions were not destroyed, that is, the left and right ventrolateral quadrants. In experiments where the left anterolateral quadrant was affected by the surgical procedure the inhibition triggered from the right hindpaw was strongly reduced, whereas that elicited by left hindpaw stimulation was not diminished. The loss of inhibitory effects was characterized by a complete disappearance of poststimulus effects, whereas inhibition observed during the application of the noxious thermal conditioning stimulus was only partially, albeit very significantly, blocked. To ascertain further the mainly crossed nature of the pathways responsible for the heterotopic inhibitory processes, the effects of lumbar commissurotomy were investigated. Again the unconditioned C-fiber responses were unaltered by this procedure, whereas the inhibitory processes, whether triggered from the left or right hindpaw, were strongly depressed in all the experiments.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Diffuse noxious inhibitory controls (DNIC): evidence for post-synaptic inhibition of trigeminal nucleus caudalis convergent neurones.

Activity produced by direct microelectrophoretic application of glutamate onto 19 convergent neurones in trigeminal nucleus caudalis, was strongly depressed during and after the application of heterotopic noxious conditioning stimuli: noxious heat (52 degrees C) applied to the tail, noxious pinches applied to the tail or hindpaws and intraperitoneal injections of bradykinin produced mean reductions in activity of 80-90%. The same noxious conditioning stimuli had no effect on the activities of any of 5 noxious-only or 5-non-noxious-only neurones. These effects were similar to those previously reported to influence peripherally evoked activities of nucleus caudalis convergent neurones and which have been termed diffuse noxious inhibitory controls (DNIC). It is therefore proposed that DNIC act on nucleus caudalis convergent neurones by a final post-synaptic inhibitory mechanism involving hyperpolarization of the neuronal membrane. Consistent with this hypothesis, it was also found that the noxious conditioning stimuli could restore firing of convergent neurones which had been excessively depolarised by large doses of glutamate.