Rhodiola crenulata alleviates hypobaric hypoxia-induced brain injury by maintaining BBB integrity and balancing energy metabolism dysfunction.

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE: Rhodiola crenulata (Hook. f. et Thoms.) H. Ohba (R. crenulate), a famous and characteristic Tibetan medicine, has been demonstrated to exert an outstanding brain protection role in the treatment of high-altitude hypoxia disease. However, the metabolic effects of R. crenulate on high-altitude hypoxic brain injury (HHBI) are still incompletely understood. Herein, the anti-hypoxic effect and associated mechanisms of R. crenulate were explored through both in vivo and in vitro experiments. STUDY DESIGN/METHODS: The mice model of HHBI was established using an animal hypobaric and hypoxic chamber. R. crenulate extract (RCE, 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 g/kg) and salidroside (Sal, 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg) was given by gavage for 7 days. Pathological changes and neuronal apoptosis of mice hippocampus and cortex were evaluated using H&E and TUNEL staining, respectively. The effects of RCE and Sal on the permeability of blood brain barrier (BBB) were detected by Evans blue staining and NIR-II fluorescence imaging. Meanwhile, the ultrastructural BBB and cerebrovascular damages were observed using a transmission electron microscope (TEM). The levels of tight junction proteins Claudin-1, ZO-1 and occludin were detected by immunofluorescence. Additionally, the metabolites in mice serum and brain were determined using UHPLC-MS and MALDI-MSI analysis. The cell viability of Sal on hypoxic HT22 cells induced by CoCl2 was investigated by cell counting kit-8. The contents of LDH, MDA, SOD, GSH-PX and SDH were detected by using commercial biochemical kits. Meanwhile, intracellular ROS, Ca2+ and mitochondrial membrane potential were determined by corresponding specific labeled probes. The intracellular metabolites of HT22 cells were performed by the targeted metabolomics analysis of the Q300 kit. The cell apoptosis and necrosis were examined by YO-PRO-1/PI, Annexin V/PI and TUNEL staining. In addition, mitochondrial morphology was tested by Mito-tracker red with confocal microscopy and TEM. Real-time ATP production, oxygen consumption rate, and proton efflux rate were measured using a Seahorse analyzer. Subsequently, MCU, OPA1, p-Drp1ser616, p-AMPKα, p-AMPKß and Sirt1 were determined by immunofluorescent and western blot analyses. RESULTS: The results demonstrated that R. crenulate and Sal exert anti-hypoxic brain protection from inhibiting neuronal apoptosis, maintaining BBB integrity, increasing tight junction protein Claudin-1, ZO-1 and occludin and improving mitochondrial morphology and function. Mechanistically, R. crenulate and Sal alleviated HHBI by enhancing the tricarboxylic acid cycle to meet the demand of energy of brain. Additionally, experiments in vitro confirmed that Sal could ameliorate the apoptosis of HT22 cells, improve mitochondrial morphology and energy metabolism by enhancing mitochondrial respiration and glycolysis. Meanwhile, Sal-mediated MCU inhibited the activation of Drp1 and enhanced the expression of OPA1 to maintain mitochondrial homeostasis, as well as activation of AMPK and Sirt1 to enhance ATP production. CONCLUSION: Collectively, the findings suggested that RCE and Sal may afford a protective intervention in HHBI through maintaining BBB integrity and improving energy metabolism via balancing MCU-mediated mitochondrial homeostasis by activating the AMPK/Sirt1 signaling pathway.

Midbrain FA initiates neuroinflammation and depression onset in both acute and chronic LPS-induced depressive model mice.

Both exogenous gaseous and liquid forms of formaldehyde (FA) can induce depressive-like behaviors in both animals and humans. Stress and neuronal excitation can elicit brain FA generation. However, whether endogenous FA participates in depression occurrence remains largely unknown. In this study, we report that midbrain FA derived from lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a direct trigger of depression. Using an acute depressive model in mice, we found that one-week intraperitoneal injection (i.p.) of LPS activated semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase (SSAO) leading to FA production from the midbrain vascular endothelium. In both in vitro and in vivo experiments, FA stimulated the production of cytokines such as IL-1ß, IL-6, and TNF-α. Strikingly, one-week microinfusion of FA as well as LPS into the midbrain dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN, a 5-HT-nergic nucleus) induced depressive-like behaviors and concurrent neuroinflammation. Conversely, NaHSO3 (a FA scavenger), improved depressive symptoms associated with a reduction in the levels of midbrain FA and cytokines. Moreover, the chronic depressive model of mice injected with four-week i.p. LPS exhibited a marked elevation in the levels of midbrain LPS accompanied by a substantial increase in the levels of FA and cytokines. Notably, four-week i.p. injection of FA as well as LPS elicited cytokine storm in the midbrain and disrupted the blood-brain barrier (BBB) by activating microglia and reducing the expression of claudin 5 (CLDN5, a protein with tight junctions in the BBB). However, the administration of 30 nm nano-packed coenzyme-Q10 (Q10, an endogenous FA scavenger), phototherapy (PT) utilizing 630-nm red light to degrade FA, and the combination of PT and Q10, reduced FA accumulation and neuroinflammation in the midbrain. Moreover, the combined therapy exhibited superior therapeutic efficacy in attenuating depressive symptoms compared to individual treatments. Thus, LPS-derived FA directly initiates depression onset, thereby suggesting that scavenging FA represents a promising strategy for depression treatment.

Food-Derived Peptides: Beneficial CNS Effects and Cross-BBB Transmission Strategies.

Food-derived peptides, as dietary supplements, have significant effects on promoting brain health and relieving central nervous system (CNS) diseases. However, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) greatly limits their in-brain bioavailability. Thus, overcoming the BBB to target the CNS is a major challenge for bioactive peptides in the prevention and treatment of CNS diseases. This review discusses improvement in the neuroprotective function of food-derived active peptides in CNS diseases, as well as the source of BBB penetrating peptides (BBB-shuttles) and the mechanism of transmembrane transport. Notably, this review also discusses various peptide modification methods to overcome the low permeability and stability of the BBB. Lipification, glycosylation, introduction of disulfide bonds, and cyclization are effective strategies for improving the penetration efficiency of peptides through the BBB. This review provides a new prospective for improving their neuroprotective function and developing treatments to delay or even prevent CNS diseases.

ω-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Improve the Blood-Brain-Barrier Integrity in Contrast-Induced Blood-Brain-Barrier Injury in Uremic Mice.

In patients with chronic kidney disease, the need for examinations using contrast media (CM) increases because of underlying diseases. Although contrast agents can affect brain cells, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) protects against brain-cell damage in vivo. However, uremia can disrupt the BBB, increasing the possibility of contrast-agent-induced brain-cell damage in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have shown protective effects on various neurological disorders, including uremic brain injury. This study examined whether ω-3 PUFAs attenuate damage to the BBB caused by uremia and contrast agents in a uremic mouse model and evaluated its associated mechanisms. C57BL/6 mice (eight weeks old, male) and fat-1 mice (b6 background/eight weeks old, male) were divided into groups according to uremic induction, CM, and ω-3 PUFA administration. Uremia was induced via 24 h ischemia-reperfusion (IR) renal injury. One day after CM treatment, the brain tissue, kidney tissue, and blood were collected. The expression levels of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), claudin 5, CD31, laminin α4, and laminin α5 increased in ω-3 PUFA + CM-treated uremic mice and the brain of fat-1 + CM-treated uremic mice compared with those in the brains of CM-treated uremic mice. The pro-apoptotic protein expression decreased, whereas the anti-apoptotic proteins increased in ω-3 PUFA + CM-treated uremic mice and fat-1 + CM-treated uremic mice compared with CM-treated uremic mice. In addition, the brain-expression levels of p-JNK, p-P53, and p-P38 decreased in the ω-3 PUFA + CM-treated uremic mice and fat-1 + CM-treated uremic mice compared with those in wild-type uremic mice. Our results confirm that uremic toxin and CM damage the BBB and cause brain-cell death. ω-3 PUFAs play a role in BBB protection caused by CM in uremic mice.

An Exosome-Based Therapeutic Strategy Targeting Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's Disease with Berberine and Palmatine.

Introduction: Neuroinflammation is one of the major pathogeneses in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and mainly involves abnormal inflammatory activation of microglia by multiple pathological stimuli. The treatment of AD remains a major challenge due to the multifactorial characterization of AD and the inefficient ability of therapeutic drugs to permeate through the blood‒brain barrier (BBB). Accordingly, drug combination treatment and drug carrier delivery have become important therapeutic tools for the treatment of multifactorial diseases, especially AD. Methods: Inflammatory cytokine levels in microglia, including NO, TNF-α, IL-1ß, IL-4, and IL-10, were detected. The Morris water maze and object location task were used to investigate the learning and memory functions of APP/PS1 mice in different treatment groups. The number of neurons and plasticity of synapses were evaluated by immunofluorescence double labelling. Additionally, the ratio of ß-amyloid plaques and the number of activated microglia were evaluated by immunofluorescence staining. The concentrations of ß-amyloid plaques and inflammatory factors in the hippocampus were determined by ELISA. Microglia-derived exosomes (Exos) were extracted and purified by size exclusion chromatography. The distribution of exosomes and drugs was investigated in vitro and in vivo. Results: Compared to single drug interventions, the combination of Ber and Pal (Ber/Pal) modulated microglial inflammatory cytokine levels. Ber/Pal promoted the recovery of learning and memory impairment in APP/PS1 mice. Immunofluorescence staining indicated that Ber/Pal restored neurons, inhibited Aß plaque formation and microglial activation, and regulated the secretion of inflammatory factors. Exos promoted the accumulation of drugs in cells and tissues and improved the targeting of drugs across the BBB. Conclusion: Ber/Pal could offer a synergistic and more comprehensive therapeutic effect in AD. Additionally, the microglia-derived Exos-Ber/Pal delivery system promoted the targeting and permeation of drugs into the brain, suggesting a creative strategy for targeting AD therapy by regulating neuroinflammation in microglial cells.

Pathways to healing: Plants with therapeutic potential for neurodegenerative diseases.

Some of the greatest challenges in medicine are the neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), which remain without a cure and mostly progress to death. A companion study employed a toolkit methodology to document 2001 plant species with ethnomedicinal uses for alleviating pathologies relevant to NDs, focusing on its relevance to Alzheimer's disease (AD). This study aimed to find plants with therapeutic bioactivities for a range of NDs. 1339 of the 2001 plant species were found to have a bioactivity from the literature of therapeutic relevance to NDs such as Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, AD, motor neurone diseases, multiple sclerosis, prion diseases, Neimann-Pick disease, glaucoma, Friedreich's ataxia and Batten disease. 43 types of bioactivities were found, such as reducing protein misfolding, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress and cell death, and promoting neurogenesis, mitochondrial biogenesis, autophagy, longevity, and anti-microbial activity. Ethno-led plant selection was more effective than random selection of plant species. Our findings indicate that ethnomedicinal plants provide a large resource of ND therapeutic potential. The extensive range of bioactivities validate the usefulness of the toolkit methodology in the mining of this data. We found that a number of the documented plants are able to modulate molecular mechanisms underlying various key ND pathologies, revealing a promising and even profound capacity to halt and reverse the processes of neurodegeneration.

Preparation and Evaluation of 6-Gingerol Derivatives as Novel Antioxidants and Antiplatelet Agents.

Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is widely used as a spice and a traditional medicine. Many bioactivities have been reported for its extracts and the isolated compounds, including cardiovascular protective effects. Different pathways were suggested to contribute to these effects, like the inhibition of platelet aggregation. In this study, we synthesised fourteen 6-gingerol derivatives, including eight new compounds, and studied their antiplatelet, COX-1 inhibitor, and antioxidant activities. In silico docking of selected compounds to h-COX-1 enzyme revealed favourable interactions. The investigated 6-gingerol derivatives were also characterised by in silico and experimental physicochemical and blood-brain barrier-related parameters for lead and preclinical candidate selection. 6-Shogaol (2) was identified as the best overall antiplatelet lead, along with compounds 3 and 11 and the new compound 17, which require formulation to optimize their water solubility. Compound 5 was identified as the most potent antioxidant that is also promising for use in the central nervous system (CNS).

l-carnitine: Nutrition, pathology, and health benefits.

Carnitine is a medically needful nutrient that contributes in the production of energy and the metabolism of fatty acids. Bioavailability is higher in vegetarians than in people who eat meat. Deficits in carnitine transporters occur as a result of genetic mutations or in combination with other illnesses such like hepatic or renal disease. Carnitine deficit can arise in diseases such endocrine maladies, cardiomyopathy, diabetes, malnutrition, aging, sepsis, and cirrhosis due to abnormalities in carnitine regulation. The exogenously provided molecule is obviously useful in people with primary carnitine deficits, which can be life-threatening, and also some secondary deficiencies, including such organic acidurias: by eradicating hypotonia, muscle weakness, motor skills, and wasting are all improved l-carnitine (LC) have reported to improve myocardial functionality and metabolism in ischemic heart disease patients, as well as athletic performance in individuals with angina pectoris. Furthermore, although some intriguing data indicates that LC could be useful in a variety of conditions, including carnitine deficiency caused by long-term total parenteral supplementation or chronic hemodialysis, hyperlipidemias, and the prevention of anthracyclines and valproate-induced toxicity, such findings must be viewed with caution.

Interactive deciphering electron-shuttling characteristics of Coffea arabica leaves and potential bioenergy-steered anti-SARS-CoV-2 RdRp inhibitor via microbial fuel cells.

Due to the pandemics of COVID-19, herbal medicine has recently been explored for possible antiviral treatment and prevention via novel platform of microbial fuel cells. It was revealed that Coffea arabica leaves was very appropriate for anti-COVID-19 drug development. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory tests exhibited the most promising activities for C. arabica ethanol extracts and drying approaches were implemented on the leaf samples prior to ethanol extraction. Ethanol extracts of C. arabica leaves were applied to bioenergy evaluation via DC-MFCs, clearly revealing that air-dried leaves (CA-A-EtOH) exhibited the highest bioenergy-stimulating capabilities (ca. 2.72 fold of power amplification to the blank). Furthermore, molecular docking analysis was implemented to decipher the potential of C. arabica leaves metabolites. Chlorogenic acid (-6.5 kcal/mol) owned the highest binding affinity with RdRp of SARS-CoV-2, showing a much lower average RMSF value than an apoprotein. This study suggested C. arabica leaves as an encouraging medicinal herb against SARS-CoV-2.

Medical Device Advances in the Treatment of Glioblastoma.

Despite decades of research and the growing emergence of new treatment modalities, Glioblastoma (GBM) frustratingly remains an incurable brain cancer with largely stagnant 5-year survival outcomes of around 5%. Historically, a significant challenge has been the effective delivery of anti-cancer treatment. This review aims to summarize key innovations in the field of medical devices, developed either to improve the delivery of existing treatments, for example that of chemo-radiotherapy, or provide novel treatments using devices, such as sonodynamic therapy, thermotherapy and electric field therapy. It will highlight current as well as emerging device technologies, non-invasive versus invasive approaches, and by doing so provide a detailed summary of evidence from clinical studies and trials undertaken to date. Potential limitations and current challenges are discussed whilst also highlighting the exciting potential of this developing field. It is hoped that this review will serve as a useful primer for clinicians, scientists, and engineers in the field, united by a shared goal to translate medical device innovations to help improve treatment outcomes for patients with this devastating disease.

Stability Study of Alpinia galanga Constituents and Investigation of Their Membrane Permeability by ChemGPS-NP and the Parallel Artificial Membrane Permeability Assay.

Alpinia galanga Willd., greater galangal, has been used for thousands of years as a spice as well as in traditional medicine. Its central nervous system (CNS) stimulant activity and neuroprotective effects have been proved both in animal models and human trials. However, the compounds responsible for these effects have not been identified yet. Therefore, the main constituents (p-OH-benzaldehyde (1), trans-p-coumaryl-alcohol (2), p-coumaryl-aldehyde (4), galanganol A (5), galanganol B (6), trans-p-acetoxycinnamyl alcohol (7), 1'S-1'-acetoxychavicol acetate (ACA, 9), and 1'S-1'-acetoxyeugenol acetate (AEA, 10)) were isolated to investigate their aqueous stability and passive diffusion across the gastro-intestinal tract (GIT) membrane and the blood-brain barrier (BBB) by the parallel artificial membrane permeability assay (PAMPA). Our positive results for compounds 1, 2, 4, 7, 9, and 10 suggest good permeability, thus potential contribution to the effects of greater galangal in the CNS. The results of the PAMPA-BBB were corroborated by in silico chemography-based ChemGPS-NP framework experiments. In addition, examination of the chemical space position of galangal compounds in relation to known psychostimulants revealed that all the molecules in proximity are NET/SERT inhibitors. As ACA and AEA did not show much proximity to either compound, the importance of further investigation of their degradation products becomes more pronounced.

Network pharmacological analysis of active components of Tongqiao Huoxue Decoction in the treatment of intracerebral hemorrhage.

Background: Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a type of stroke which results in a high disability and mortality rate and has a poor prognosis. Tongqiao Huoxue Decoction (TQHXD) is a classical Chinese prescription. Clinical practice has proven that TQHXD can promote blood circulation and can effectively treat ICH and its sequelae. However, the current mechanism is still unclear. Methods: The chemical components and target genes of TQHXD were collected from the Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) Systems Pharmacology and Bioinformatics Analysis Tool for Molecular Mechanism of Traditional Chinese Medicine analysis platforms, and the gene expression data of ICH tissues were downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) was performed to obtain differentially co-expressed gene pairs and build a drug-target-disease network. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses were performed on the obtained target genes and shared genes. Finally, molecular docking was carried out to further clarify the utility of TQHXD for the treatment of ICH. Results: A total of 304 differentially expressed genes in ICH, 42 TQHXD active ingredients, and 279 predicted targets of its active compounds were obtained. Bioinformatics analysis showed that they were involved in angiogenesis, the regulation of wound healing, and other biological processes. Furthermore, their participation in fluid shear stress and the atherosclerosis signaling pathway indicated their close association with the pathological processes of ICH. Finally, molecular docking was carried out to further confirm the tightly binding structural sites of the effective components of TQHXD and key proteins. Conclusions: In summary, the results of this study suggest that the mechanism of action of TQHXD in the treatment of ICH involves multiple targets and signaling pathways related to its occurrence and development. This study not only provides a new theoretical basis for the treatment of ICH with traditional Chinese medicine, but also provides new ideas for the research and development of drugs for the treatment of ICH.

An Overview of the Neuropharmacological Potential of Thymoquinone and its Targeted Delivery Prospects for CNS Disorder.

At present, people and patients worldwide are relying on the medicinal plant as a therapeutic agent over pharmaceuticals because the medicinal plant is considered safer, especially for chronic disorders. Several medicinal plants and their components are being researched and explored for their possible therapeutic contribution to CNS disorders. Thymoquinone (TQ) is one such molecule. Thymoquinone, one of the constituents of Plant Nigella Sativa, is effective against several neurodegenerative diseases like, Alzheimer's, Depression, Encephalomyelitis, Epilepsy, Ischemia, Parkinson's, and Traumatic. This review article presents the neuropharmacological potential of TQ's, their challenges, and delivery prospects, explicitly focusing on neurological disorders along with their chemistry, pharmacokinetics, and toxicity. Since TQ has some pharmacokinetic challenges, scientists have focused on novel formulations and delivery systems to enhance bioavailability and ultimately increase its therapeutic value. In the present work, the role of nanotechnology in neurodegenerative disease and how it improves the bioavailability and delivery of a drug to the site of action has been discussed. There are a few limitations to developing novel drug formulations, including solubility, pH, and compatibility of nanomaterials. Since here we are targeting CNS disorders, the bloodbrain barrier (BBB) becomes an additional challenge. Hence, the review summarized the novel aspects of delivery and biocompatible nanoparticles-based approaches for targeted drug delivery into CNS, enhancing TQ bioavailability and its neurotherapeutic effects.

Canthin-6-one (CO) from Picrasma quassioides (D.Don) Benn. ameliorates lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced astrocyte activation and associated brain endothelial disruption.

BACKGROUND: Canthin-6-one (CO) is an active ingredient found in Picrasma quassioides (D.Don) Benn. (PQ) that displays various biological activities including anti-inflammatory properties. Several studies reported PQ displayed neuroprotective activities, but its effects on astrocytes have not yet been investigated. Astrocytes are crucial regulators of neuroinflammatory responses under pathological conditions in the central nervous system (CNS). Proinflammatory astrocytes can induce the blood-brain barrier (BBB) breakdown, which plays a key role in the progression of neurodegenerative disorder (ND). PURPOSE: This study aims to investigate the anti-neuroinflammatory effects of CO in LPS-induced astrocyte activation and its underlying mechanisms in protecting the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in vitro. METHODS: Mouse astrocytes (C8-D1A) were activated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) with or without CO pretreatment. Effects of CO on astrocyte cell viability, secretions of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß) and nitric oxide (NO) were determined. Intracellular transcriptions and translations of proinflammatory mediators, molecular signaling, [Ca2+] and the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were evaluated by RT-PCR, western blotting, and flow cytometry, respectively. Astrocyte-conditioned medium (ACM) was further prepared for incubating endothelial monolayer (bEnd.3) grown on transwell. Endothelial disruptions were evaluated by transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER), FITC-dextran permeability and monocyte adhesion assays. Endothelial tight junctions (TJs) and molecular signaling pathways were evaluated by immunofluorescence staining and western blotting. RESULTS: CO attenuated LPS-induced expression of astrocytic proinflammatory mediators (TNF-α, IL-1ß, IL-6, NO) and inhibited deleterious molecular activities including inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), p-NFκB and p-STAT3 in astrocytes. Incubation of ACM collected from CO-treated astrocytes significantly ameliorated endothelial disruptions, reduced expressions of endothelial cytokine receptors (IL-6R, gp130 (IL-6RB), TNFR and IL-1R), suppressed proinflammatory pathways, MAPKs (p-AKT, p-MEK, p-ERK, p-p38, p-JNK) and p-STAT3, restored endothelial stabilizing pathways (p-Rac 1) and upregulated beneficial endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS). CONCLUSION: Our study demonstrates for the first time CO exhibited potent protective effects against astrocyte-mediated proinflammatory responses and associated endothelial barrier disruptions.

Transcriptomic Analysis of Rat Cerebral Cortex Reveals the Potential Mechanism of Electroacupuncture Opening Blood Brain Barrier.

Therapeutic treatment options for central nervous system (CNS) diseases are greatly limited by the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Electroacupuncture (EA) can be used to induce an increase in BBB permeability on rats, providing a potential approach for the delivery of drugs from the systemic circulation into the brain. However, there remains a large gap in our knowledge regarding the impact of EA on brain gene expression. This work is focused on investigating the transcriptional changes of rat cerebral cortex following EA and expression changes in genes and bioinformatic analysis was performed. We found that the potential mechanism of EA opening BBB involves receptor-mediated/carrier-mediated endocytosis (RMT/CMT), and related genes include solute carrier (SLC) transporter genes and ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter genes. The results also suggested that EA may affect the expression of tight junction (TJ) proteins in endothelial cells by affecting integrin binding, autophagy pathway and calcium signaling pathway, thus further affecting the permeability of blood-brain barrier. Our results provide a valuable resource that will guide mechanism research of EA opening BBB and other ways to mediate drug delivery into the brain.

Simultaneous Determination of Seven Lipophilic and Hydrophilic Components in Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge by LC-MS/MS Method and Its Application to a Transport Study in a Blood-Brain-Barrier Cell Model.

Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge (SM) has been extensively used in Alzheimer's disease treatment, the permeability through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) determining its efficacy. However, the transport mechanism of SM components across the BBB remains to be clarified. A simple, precise, and sensitive method using LC-MS/MS was developed for simultaneous quantification of tanshinone I (TS I), dihydrotanshinone I (DTS I), tanshinone IIA (TS IIA), cryptotanshinone (CTS), protocatechuic aldehyde (PAL), protocatechuic acid (PCTA), and caffeic acid (CFA) in transport samples. The analytes were separated on a C18 column by gradient elution. Multiple reaction monitoring mode via electrospray ionization source was used to quantify the analytes in positive mode for TS I, DTS I, TS IIA, CTS, and negative mode for PAL, PCTA, and CFA. The linearity ranges were 0.1-8 ng/mL for TS I and DTS I, 0.2-8 ng/mL for TS IIA, 1-80 ng/mL for CTS, 20-800 ng/mL for PAL and CFA, and 10-4000 ng/mL for PCTA. The developed method was accurate and precise for the compounds. The relative matrix effect was less than 15%, and the analytes were stable for analysis. The established method was successfully applied for transport experiments on a BBB cell model to evaluate the apparent permeability of the seven components.

Combination of Ephedra sinica stems and Terminalia chebula fruits produces new ephedrine derivatives in vivo that diminish the permeability to BBB while retaining airway dilation and hepatoprotective effects.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: The stems of Ephedra sinica and the fruits of Terminalia chebula are combined using in traditional Mongolian medicine formula "Gurigumu-7" for liver diseases. E. sinica stems contains ephedrine with broncho-dilatory activity. However, ephedrine can pass through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and excite the central nervous system (CNS) to cause insomnia and restlessness. AIM OF THE STUDY: The present study was to investigate the structures and bioactivities of new compounds formed in vivo after co-administration of E. sinica stems and T. chebula fruits. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Pharmacokinetic investigation was carried out in rats. A parallel artificial membrane permeability measurement system was used to determine BBB permeability. Ex vivo experiments using tracheal rings of guinea pig was performed to examine the tracheal relaxation effect. In vivo hepatoprotective tests were carried out in Tg (fabp10a: dsRed) liver transgenic zebrafish. The fluorescent probe, 2,7-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate, was used to measure reactive oxygen species, and UHPLC-MS was used to determine glutathione concentrations after derivatization with N-ethylmaleimide. RESULTS: New ephedrine derivatives (1 and 2) formed in vivo and reached their maximum serum concentrations at 0.5 h after administration of the two herbal drugs. Compounds 1 and 2 showed lower BBB permeability than ephedrine, suggesting that they have less adverse effects on the CNS. Compounds 1 and 2 relaxed the tracheal rings and had strong hepatoprotective effect on transgenic zebrafish with liver specific expression of RFP. Compounds 1 and 2 significantly reduced the level of reactive oxygen species while increasing that of glutathione in thioacetamide-treated zebrafish, which might be the hepatoprotective mechanism. CONCLUSION: These results provided evidences that the chemical constituents in various herbal drugs in a medicinal formula can interact to generate new compounds with fewer side effects and increased or additive bioactivity.

Antidepressant effects of total iridoids of Valeriana jatamansi via the intestinal flora-blood-brain barrier pathway.

CONTEXT: Valeriana jatamansi Jones [syn. V. wallichii DC, (Valerianaceae)] (VJJ) is used to treat depression. OBJECTIVE: To explore the effects of total iridoids of VJJ extract (TIV) on chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) in mice. MATERIALS AND METHODS: VJJ roots and rhizomes were extracted with 70% ethanol. CUMS rats were treated daily with fluoxetine (2.6 mg/kg, i.g.) or TIV (5.7, 11.4, and 22.8 mg/kg, i.g.) for 14 days. Male Kun Ming mice on normal chow and 0.5% CMC-Na solution were used as a control. Behavioural tests included the tail suspension (TST) and sucrose preference tests (SPT). Evans blue staining was used to evaluate blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability. Western blotting was used to measure zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) and occludin expression. 16S rRNA sequencing was used to analyse intestinal flora abundance. Tax4Fun was used to predict KEGG metabolic pathways. RESULTS: TIV treatment reduced TST time (117.35 ± 8.23 or 108.95 ± 6.76 vs. 144.45 ± 10.30 s), increased SPT (55.83 ± 7.24 or 53.12 ± 13.85 vs. 38.98 ± 5.43%), increased the abundance of phylum Firmicutes (86.99 ± 0.03 vs. 60.88 ± 0.19%) and genus Lactobacillus (75.20 ± 0.19 vs. 62.10 ± 0.13%), reduced the abundance of phylum Bacteroidetes (6.69 ± 0.06 or 11.50 ± 0.09 vs. 25.07 ± 0.20%). TIV increased carbohydrate metabolism (14.50 ± 3.00 × 10-3 or 14.60 ± 2.00 × 10-3 or 14.90 ± 2.00 × 10-3 vs.13.80 ± 4.00 × 10-3%), replication and repair functions (5.60 ± 1.00 × 10-3 or 5.60 ± 1.00 × 10-3 vs. 5.10 ± 4.00 × 10-3%), reduced the frequency of infectious disease (1.60 ± 2.00 × 10-4 or 1.90 ± 5.00 × 10-4 or 1.80 ± 3.00 × 10-4 vs. 2.20 ± 7.00 × 10-3%), BBB permeability (0.77 ± 0.30 vs. 1.81 ± 0.33 µg/g), and up-regulated the expression of ZO-1 (1.42-fold, 1.60-fold, 1.71-fold) and occludin (1.79-fold, 2.20-fold). CONCLUSIONS: TIV may modulate the intestinal flora, thereby inducing the expression of ZO-1 and occludin, protecting the BBB and exerting an antidepressant effect.

Comparative study of two isothiazolinone biocides, 1,2-benzisothiazolin-3-one (BIT) and 4,5-dichloro-2-n-octyl-isothiazolin-3-one (DCOIT), on barrier function and mitochondrial bioenergetics using murine brain endothelial cell line (bEND.3).

Isothiazolinone (IT) biocides are potent antibacterial substances used as preservatives and disinfectants. These biocides exert differing biocidal effects and display environmental stability based upon chemical structure. In agreement with our recent study reporting that 2-n-octyl-4-isothiazolin-3-one (OIT) induced dysfunction of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), the potential adverse health effects of two IT biocides 1,2-benzisothiazolin-3-one (BIT) and 4,5-dichloro-2-n-octyl-isothiazolin-3-one (DCOIT) were compared using brain endothelial cells (ECs) derived from murine brain endothelial cell line (bEND.3). BIT possesses an unchlorinated IT ring structure and used as a preservative in cleaning products. DCOIT contains a chlorinated IT ring structure and employed as an antifouling agent in paints. Data demonstrated that DCOIT altered cellular metabolism at a lower concentration than BIT. Both BIT and DCOIT increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation at the mitochondrial and cellular levels. However, the effect of DCOIT on glutathione (GSH) levels appeared to be greater than BIT. While mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) was decreased in both BIT- and DCOIT-exposed cells, direct disturbance in mitochondrial bioenergetic flux was only observed in BIT-treated ECs. Taken together, IT biocides produced toxicity in brain EC and barrier dysfunction, but at different concentration ranges suggesting distinct differing mechanisms related to chemical structure.

Comparative assessment of in vitro BBB tight junction integrity following exposure to cigarette smoke and e-cigarette vapor: a quantitative evaluation of the protective effects of metformin using small-molecular-weight paracellular markers.

BACKGROUND: The blood-brain barrier (BBB) plays a critical role in protecting the central nervous system (CNS) from blood-borne agents and potentially harmful xenobiotics. Our group's previous data has shown that tobacco smoke (TS) and electronic cigarettes (EC) affect the BBB integrity, increase stroke incidence, and are considered a risk factor for multiple CNS disorders. Metformin was also found to abrogate the adverse effects of TS and EC. METHODS: We used sucrose and mannitol as paracellular markers to quantitatively assess TS and EC's impact on the BBB in-vitro. Specifically, we used a quantitative platform to determine the harmful effects of smoking on the BBB and study the protective effect of metformin. Using a transwell system and iPSCs-derived BMECs, we assessed TS and EC's effect on sucrose and mannitol permeability with and without metformin pre-treatment at different time points. Concurrently, using immunofluorescence (IF) and Western blot (WB) techniques, we evaluated the expression and distribution of tight junction proteins, including ZO-1, occludin, and claudin-5. RESULTS: Our data showed that TS and EC negatively affect sucrose and mannitol permeability starting after 6 h and up to 24 h. The loss of barrier integrity was associated with a reduction of TEER values. While the overall expression level of ZO-1 and occludin was not significantly downregulated, the distribution of ZO-1 was altered, and discontinuation patterns were evident through IF imaging. In contrast to occludin, claudin-5 expression was significantly decreased by TS and EC, as demonstrated by WB and IF data. CONCLUSION: In agreement with previous studies, our data showed the metformin could counteract the negative impact of TS and EC on BBB integrity, thus suggesting the possibility of repurposing this drug to afford cerebrovascular protection.