Plasma Sphingomyelins and Carnitine Esters of Infants Consuming Whole Goat or Cow Milk-Based Infant Formulas or Human Milk.

BACKGROUND: Infant formulas are typically manufactured using skimmed milk, whey proteins, and vegetable oils, which excludes milk fat globule membranes (MFGM). MFGM contains polar lipids, including sphingomyelin (SM). OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was comparison of infant plasma SM and acylcarnitine species between infants who are breastfed or receiving infant formulas with different fat sources. METHODS: In this explorative study, we focused on SM and acylcarnitine species concentrations measured in plasma samples from the TIGGA study (ACTRN12608000047392), where infants were randomly assigned to receive either a cow milk-based infant formula (CIF) with vegetable oils only or a goat milk-based infant formula (GIF) with a goat milk fat (including MFGM) and vegetable oil mixture to the age ≥4 mo. Breastfed infants were followed as a reference group. Using tandem mass spectrometry, SM species in the study formulas and SM and acylcarnitine species in plasma samples collected at the age of 4 mo were analyzed. RESULTS: Total SM concentrations (∼42 µmol/L) and patterns of SM species were similar in both formulas. The total plasma SM concentrations were not different between the formula groups but were 15 % (CIF) and 21% (GIF) lower in the formula groups than in the breastfed group. Between the formula groups, differences in SM species were statistically significant but small. Total carnitine and major (acyl) carnitine species were not different between the groups. CONCLUSIONS: The higher total SM concentration in breastfed than in formula-fed infants might be related to a higher SM content in human milk, differences in cholesterol metabolism, dietary fatty acid intake, or other factors not yet identified. SM and acylcarnitine species composition in plasma is not closely related to the formula fatty acid composition. This trial was registered at Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry as ACTRN12608000047392.

Elemental composition of toxic and essential elements in rice-based baby foods from the United States and other countries: A probabilistic risk analysis.

Consumption of rice-based foods provides essential nutrients required for infants and toddlers' growth. However, they could contain toxic and excess essential elements that may affect human health. The study aims to determine the composition of rice-based baby foods in the USA and outside and conduct a multiple-life stages probabilistic exposure and risk assessment of toxic and essential elements in children. Elemental concentrations were measured using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) in thirty-three rice-based baby foods. This includes 2 infant formulas, 11 rice baby cereals, and 20 rice snacks produced primarily in the United States, China, and other countries. A probabilistic risk assessment was conducted to assess risks of adverse health effects. Results showed that infant formula had higher median concentrations of selenium (Se), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), and potassium (K) compared to rice baby cereal and rice snacks. On the contrary, rice snacks had the highest median concentration of Arsenic (As) (127 µg/kg) while rice baby cereals showed the highest median concentration of Cd (7 µg/kg). A higher lifetime estimated daily intake was observed for samples manufactured in the USA compared to those from China and other countries. Hazard quotient (HQ < 1) values were suggestive of minimal adverse health effects. However, lifetime carcinogenic risk analysis based on total As indicated an unacceptable cancer risk (>1E-04). These findings show a need for ongoing monitoring of rice-based foods consumed by infants and toddlers as supplementary and substitutes for breast milk or weaning food options. This can be useful in risk reduction and mitigation of early life exposure to improve health outcomes.

Iron Fortification and Inulin Supplementation in Early Infancy: Evaluating the Impact on Iron Metabolism and Trace Mineral Status in a Piglet Model.

Background: Infant formula in the United States contains abundant iron, raising health concerns about excess iron intake in early infancy. Objectives: Using a piglet model, we explored the impact of high iron fortification and prebiotic or synbiotic supplementation on iron homeostasis and trace mineral bioavailability. Methods: Twenty-four piglets were stratified and randomly assigned to treatments on postnatal day 2. Piglets were individually housed and received an iron-adequate milk diet (AI), a high-iron milk diet (HI), HI supplemented with 5% inulin (HI with a prebiotic [HIP]), or HIP with an oral gavage of Ligilactobacillus agilis YZ050, an inulin-fermenting strain, every third day (HI with synbiotic [HIS]). Milk was provided in 14 meals daily, mimicking formula feeding in infants. Fecal consistency score and body weight were recorded daily or every other day. Blood and feces were sampled weekly, and tissues collected on postnatal day 29. Data were analyzed using mixed model analysis of variance with repeated measures whenever necessary. Results: Diet did not affect growth. HI increased hemoglobin, hematocrit, and serum iron compared to AI. Despite marginal adequacy, AI upregulated iron transporter genes and maintained satisfactory iron status in most pigs. HI upregulated hepcidin gene expression in liver, caused pronounced tissue iron deposition, and markedly increased colonic and fecal iron. Inulin supplementation, regardless of L. agilis YZ050, not only attenuated hepatic iron overload but also decreased colonic and fecal iron without altering pH or the expression of iron regulatory genes. HI lowered zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu) in the duodenum and liver compared to AI, whereas HIP and HIS further decreased Zn and Cu in the liver and diminished colonic and fecal trace minerals. Conclusions: Early-infancy excessive iron fortification causes iron overload and compromises Zn and Cu absorption. Inulin decreases trace mineral absorption likely by enhancing gut peristalsis and stool frequency.

Optimizing ARA and DHA in infant formula: A systematic review of global trends, regional disparities, and considerations for precision nutrition.

In the context of precision nutrition, the addition of ARA and DHA in infant formula needs to consider more factors. This study conducted a comprehensive literature review, including 112 relevant Chinese and English articles, to summarize and analyze the global levels of ARA, DHA, and the ARA/DHA ratio in breast milk. The data were correlated with local aquatic products intake and children's IQ. The results indicated that the average level of DHA in breast milk across regions is lower than that of ARA. Variations in DHA content were identified as a primary factor influencing ARA/DHA ratio fluctuations. Breast milk ARA and DHA levels decrease with prolonged lactation periods but increase over the past 22 years. Correlation analysis revealed a significant positive relationship between aquatic products intake and breast milk DHA levels (r = 0.64, p < 0.05). Breast milk DHA levels also showed a significant positive correlation with children's IQ (r = 0.67, p < 0.01). Stable breast milk ARA content did not exhibit significant correlations with aquatic products intake or children's IQ (r = 0, p > 0.05). Among 22 infant formula products available in China, only 5 had ARA levels within the range of breast milk. Most formula products had higher ARA levels than DHA, resulting in ARA/DHA ratios generally exceeding 1. The temporal and spatial variability in breast milk ARA and DHA levels may lead to diverse health outcomes in infants. Therefore, the addition of ARA and DHA in infant formula should consider this variability, including the molecular forms and positional isomerism of the added ARA and DHA. Additionally, considering the impact of different cognitive development tests and infant's gene expression on formula assessment results, there is a need to establish a more comprehensive infant health assessment system to guide the addition of ARA and DHA in formula.

Quantitative Analysis of Nervonic and Erucic Acids in Human Milk: Comparison with Infant Formula with Different Fat Sources and Nutritional Stages.

This study aims to quantitatively analyze nervonic (C24:1 n-9) and erucic (C22:1 n-9) acids in human milk (HM) collected from Korean mothers, along with the infant formulas (IFs) with different fat sources and nutritional stages. The content of nervonic and erucic acids in HM from Korean mothers were 2.13 and 2.81 mg/100 g, accounting for 0.06 and 0.08% of the total fatty acids (FAs), respectively. These acids in IFs based on fat from plant-oil formula were higher than those in IFs based on cow milk formula. The composition of erucic acid in IFs based on cow milk formula and plant-oil formula increased with the nutritional stages, while nervonic acid only increased in IFs based on the plant-oil formula.

The triacylglycerol structures are key factors influencing lipid digestion in preterm formulas during in vitro digestion.

Preterm formulas are usually supplemented with medium-chain triacylglycerols (MCT) whereas breast milk contains more medium and long-chain triacylglycerols (MLCT). Different types of triacylglycerol (TAG) containing medium-chain fatty acids may influence lipid digestion. In this study, the digestive characteristics of breast milk and preterm formulas with different MCT contents were evaluated using a dynamic in vitro system simulating the gastrointestinal tract of preterm infants. The lipolysis products, including diacylglycerols, monoacylglycerols (MAGs), free fatty acids, and undigested TAGs, were analyzed. Formulas with MCT addition has significantly (P < 0.05) lower lipolysis degree (LD, 69.35%-71.28%) than breast milk (76.93%). Higher amounts of C8:0 and C10:0 were released in the formulas with MCT addition. Breast milk released more C18:1n-9, C18:2n-6, and MAG containing C16:0, whereas formulas released more free C16:0. The Pearson correlation heatmap showed that the LD value was significantly and positively (P < 0.05) related to the MLCT and sn-2 C16:0 content.

Infant feeding-a scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023.

The 2012 edition of the Nordic Nutrition Recommendations (NNR) included recommendations on breastfeeding, based on the most recent guidelines and recommendations from major national food and health authorities and organizations, systematic reviews, and some original research. For NNR 2023, the scope has been expanded and also includes formula feeding and the introduction of solid food. The main focus in this scoping review is on infants aged 0-12 months but also considers parts both before and beyond the first year, as the concept of 'the first 1000 days' emphasizes the importance of factors during pregnancy and the first 2 years of life for immediate and later health: physical as well as emotional and mental health. Breastmilk is the natural and sustainable way to feed an infant during the first months of life. Numerous studies have indicated immediate as well as long-term beneficial effects of breastfeeding on health for both the infant and the breastfeeding mother, and from a public health perspective, it is therefore important to protect, support, and promote breastfeeding. For full-term, normal weight infants, breastmilk is sufficient as the only form of nutrition for the first 6 months, except for vitamin D that needs to be given as supplement. The World Health Organization (WHO) and several other authoritative bodies therefore recommend exclusive breastfeeding during the first 6 months. Starting solids at about 6 months is necessary for both nutritional and developmental reasons. According to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and the European Society for Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (ESPGHAN), solid foods are safe to give from 4 months although exclusive breastfeeding until 6 months is the desirable goal. Breastfeeding can continue together with complementary foods as long as it is mutually desired by the mother and child. If breastfeeding is not enough or for some reason discontinued before the infant is 4 months of age, the infant should be fed infant formula, and, when possible, breastfeeding should be continued alongside the formula feeding. If the infant is 4 months or older, starting with solids together with continued breastfeeding and/or formula feeding is an option. Infant formulas have been developed for infants who are not breastfed or do not get enough breastmilk. Home-made formula should not be given.

Supplemented Infant Formula and Human Breast Milk Show Similar Patterns in Modulating Infant Microbiota Composition and Function In Vitro.

The gut microbiota of healthy breastfed infants is often dominated by bifidobacteria. In an effort to mimic the microbiota of breastfed infants, modern formulas are fortified with bioactive and bifidogenic ingredients. These ingredients promote the optimal health and development of infants as well as the development of the infant microbiota. Here, we used INFOGEST and an in vitro batch fermentation model to investigate the gut health-promoting effects of a commercial infant formula supplemented with a blend containing docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (20 mg/100 kcal), polydextrose and galactooligosaccharides (PDX/GOS) (4 g/L, 1:1 ratio), milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) (5 g/L), lactoferrin (0.6 g/L), and Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis, BB-12 (BB-12) (106 CFU/g). Using fecal inoculates from three healthy infants, we assessed microbiota changes, the bifidogenic effect, and the short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production of the supplemented test formula and compared those with data obtained from an unsupplemented base formula and from the breast milk control. Our results show that even after INFOGEST digestion of the formula, the supplemented formula can still maintain its bioactivity and modulate infants' microbiota composition, promote faster bifidobacterial growth, and stimulate production of SCFAs. Thus, it may be concluded that the test formula containing a bioactive blend promotes infant gut microbiota and SCFA profile to something similar, but not identical to those of breastfed infants.

Sialic acid in human milk and infant formulas in China: concentration, distribution and type.

This study compared the concentrations, types and distributions of sialic acid (SA) in human milk at different stages of the postnatal period with those in a range of infant formulas. Breast milk from mothers of healthy, full-term and exclusively breastfed infants was collected on the 2nd (n 246), 7th (n 135), 30th (n 85) and 90th (n 48) day after birth. The SA profiles of human milk, including their distribution, were analysed and compared with twenty-four different infant formulas. Outcome of this observational study was the result of natural exposure. Only SA of type Neu5Ac was detected in human milk. Total SA concentrations were highest in colostrum and reduced significantly over the next 3 months. Approximately 68·7­76·1 % of all SA in human milk were bound to oligosaccharides. Two types of SA, Neu5Ac and Neu5Gc, have been detected in infant formulas. Most SA was present in infant formulas combined with protein. Breastfed infants could receive more SA than formula-fed infants with the same energy intake. Overall, human milk is a preferable source of SA than infant formulas in terms of total SA content, dynamics, distribution and type. These SA profiles in the natural state are worth to be considered by the production of formulas because they may have a great effect on infant nutrition and development.

Gastrointestinal barrier function, immunity, and neurocognition: The role of human milk oligosaccharide (hMO) supplementation in infant formula.

Breastmilk is seen as the gold standard for infant nutrition as it provides nutrients and compounds that stimulate gut barrier, immune, and brain development to the infant. However, there are many instances where it is not possible for an infant to be fed with breastmilk, especially for the full 6 months recommended by the World Health Organization. In such instances, infant formula is seen as the next best approach. However, infant formulas do not contain human milk oligosaccharides (hMOs), which are uniquely present in human milk as the third most abundant solid component. hMOs have been linked to many health benefits, such as the development of the gut microbiome, the immune system, the intestinal barrier, and a healthy brain. This paper reviews the effects of specific hMOs applied in infant formula on the intestinal barrier, including the not-often-recognized intestinal alkaline phosphatase system that prevents inflammation. Additionally, impact on immunity and the current proof for effects in neurocognitive function and the corresponding mechanisms are discussed. Recent studies suggest that hMOs can alter gut microbiota, modulate intestinal immune barrier function, and promote neurocognitive function. The hMOs 2'-fucosyllactose and lacto-N-neotetraose have been found to have positive effects on the development of infants and have been deemed safe for use in formula. However, their use has been limited due to their cost and complexity of synthesis. Thus, although many benefits have been described, complex hMOs and combinations of hMOs with other oligosaccharides are the best approach to stimulate gut barrier, immune, and brain development and for the prevention of disease.

Probabilistic risk assessment for determining nonessential metals in commercial infant formula products in Taiwan.

During the early months of life, infant formula plays a crucial role as a primary source of both food and essential nutrients for infants, serving as a replacement for or supplement to breast milk. However, nonessential metals in infant formulas are a concern because infants are highly vulnerable to chemical exposure. The aim of this study was to investigate infant exposure to nonessential metals in infant formula products in Taiwan and assess the associated health risks. In this study, concentrations of arsenic (As), barium (Ba), cadmium (Cd), manganese (Mn), lead (Pb), and vanadium (V) in 45 formula products for 0-1-year-old infants were determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The mean As, Ba, Cd, Mn, Pb, and V concentrations were 6.42, 280, 3.72, 1425, 20.4, and 21.9 µg/kg, respectively. According to our probabilistic simulation of the estimated daily intake of metals, the proportion of hazard quotients exceeding one was 7.69% for As and 3.29% for Mn, and that of hazard index (HI) values exceeding 1 was >17% for metals. Arsenic had the largest HI contribution (46.9%), followed by Mn (22.3%) and Pb (12.7%). The nonessential metals content in infant formula raises potential noncarcinogenic health concerns for infants in Taiwan. Therefore, regulations for nonessential metals must be imposed on related food products in Taiwan, with a particular focus on As and Mn.

More than nutrition: Therapeutic potential and mechanism of human milk oligosaccharides against necrotizing enterocolitis.

Human milk is the most valuable source of nutrition for infants. The structure and function of human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs), which are key components of human milk, have long been attracting particular research interest. Several recent studies have found HMOs to be efficacious in the prevention and treatment of necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC). Additionally, they could be developed in the future as non-invasive predictive markers for NEC. Based on previous findings and the well-defined functions of HMOs, we summarize potential protective mechanisms of HMOs against neonatal NEC, which include: modulating signal receptor function, promoting intestinal epithelial cell proliferation, reducing apoptosis, restoring intestinal blood perfusion, regulating microbial prosperity, and alleviating intestinal inflammation. HMOs supplementation has been demonstrated to be protective against NEC in both animal studies and clinical observations. This calls for mass production and use of HMOs in infant formula, necessitating more research into the safety of industrially produced HMOs and the appropriate dosage in infant formula.

Clinical Studies on the Supplementation of Manufactured Human Milk Oligosaccharides: A Systematic Review.

Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are a major component of human milk. They are associated with multiple health benefits and are manufactured on a large scale for their addition to different food products. In this systematic review, we evaluate the health outcomes of published clinical trials involving the supplementation of manufactured HMOs. We screened the PubMed database and Cochrane Library, identifying 26 relevant clinical trials and five publications describing follow-up studies. The clinical trials varied in study populations, including healthy term infants, infants with medical indications, children, and adults. They tested eight different HMO structures individually or as blends in varying doses. All trials included safety and tolerance assessments, and some also assessed growth, stool characteristics, infections, gut microbiome composition, microbial metabolites, and biomarkers. The studies consistently found that HMO supplementation was safe and well tolerated. Infant studies reported a shift in outcomes towards those observed in breastfed infants, including stool characteristics, gut microbiome composition, and intestinal immune markers. Beneficial gut health and immune system effects have also been observed in other populations following HMO supplementation. Further clinical trials are needed to substantiate the effects of HMO supplementation on human health and to understand their structure and dose dependency.

Comparison of the effect of various sources of saturated fatty acids on infant follow-on formulas oxidative stability and nutritional profile.

Fortification of infant follow-on formulas (IFF) with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which is prone to lipid oxidation, is required by European regulation. This study aimed to identify lipid formulation parameters that improve the nutritional profile and oxidative stability of IFF. Model IFF were formulated using different lipid and emulsifier sources, including refined (POM) or unrefined red palm oil (RPOM), coconut oil (COM), dairy fat (DFOM), soy lecithin, and dairy phospholipids (DPL). After an accelerated storage, RPOM and DFOM with DPL had improved oxidative stability compared to other IFF. Specifically, they had a peroxide value twice lower than POM and 20% less loss of tocopherols for DFOM-DPL. This higher stability was mainly explained by the presence of compounds such as carotenoids in RPOM and sphingomyelin in DFOM-DPL very likely acting synergistically with tocopherols. Incorporation of dairy lipids and carotenoids into DHA-enriched IFF compositions seems promising to enhance their stability and nutritional quality.

[Development for the Simultaneous Analytical Method of Furan and Alkyl Furans in Processed Foods].

A simultaneous analytical method was developed for the determination of alkyl furans (Furan, 2-methylfuran, 3-methylfuran and 2,5-dimethylfuran) in processed foods by headspace-GC-MS. Single-laboratory validation data of furan, 2-methylfuran, 3-methylfuran and 2,5-dimethylfuran showed good precision and accuracy. The mean recoveries ranged from 92 to 116%, the intermediate precision (RSDi) ranged from 0.9 to 12.9%. The level of LOQ ranged from 0.5 to 1.2 µg/kg (coffee), from 3.5 to 4.1 µg/kg (soy sauce), from 0.4 to 1.3 µg/kg (other foods: clear apple juice, infant formula and baby food), respectively. This method has the sensitivity to detect low levels of furan and alkyl furans contaminated in various foods and is thus applicable to surveillance for risk management in food safety.

Interfacial composition in infant formulas powder modulate lipid digestion in simulated in-vitro infant gastrointestinal digestion.

The interface structure and composition of fat globules are very important for the digestion and metabolism of fat and growth in infants. Interface composition of fat globules in infant formula (IF) supplemented with milk fat globule membranes (MFGM) and lecithin in different ways were analyzed and their effects on fat digestion properties were evaluated. The results showed that the distribution of phospholipids at the interface and structural of Concept IF1 and Concept IF2 that were more similar to those of human milk (HM) than that of conventionally processed IF3. Concept IF2 and IF3 supplemented with lecithin had larger initial particle size and more sphingomyelin (SM) (23.12 ± 0.26 %, 26.94 ± 0.34 %) than Concept IF1, and Concept IF2 had the smallest proportion of casein in the interfacial. Due to its interface composition, Concept IF2 had the highest degree of lipolysis (85.07 ± 0.76 %), the phospholipid ring structure can always be observed during gastric digestion, and a final fatty acid composition released that was more similar to HM. Concept IF1 and IF3 were different from HM and Concept IF2 in terms of structure and lipolysis rate, although superior to commercial IF4. These indicate that changes in the interfacial composition and structure of fat globules improve the digestive properties of fats in IF. Overall, the results reported herein are useful in designing new milk formulas that better simulate HM.

Perspective: Is It Time to Revise the Current Nutrient Requirements for Infant Formulas Principally Established in 1980?

Because of the production of nutrient-deficient infant formulas (IFs), the United States Congress passed regulations on the composition and production of IF, referred to as the Infant Formula Act (IFA), in 1980, which was amended in 1986. More detailed FDA rules have been created since then, specifying the ranges or minimum intakes of nutrients and providing details for the safe production and evaluation of infant formulas. Although generally effective in ensuring safe IF, recent events have made it clear that a re-evaluation of aspects of all the nutrient composition regulations for IF is needed, including consideration of adding requirements related to bioactive nutrients not mentioned in the IFA. We propose that, as principal examples, the requirement for iron content needs to be re-evaluated and that DHA and AA should be considered for addition to the nutrient requirements after scientific review by a panel such as those established by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Additionally, there is no specific requirement in current FDA regulations for the energy density of IF, and this should be added alongside potential revisions of the protein requirement. It would also be ideal to have specific FDA rules on nutrient intakes for premature infants as these are exempted from the specific nutrient regulations of the amended IFA.

Low-Protein Formulas with Alpha-Lactalbumin-Enriched or Glycomacropeptide-Reduced Whey: Effects on Growth, Nutrient Intake and Protein Metabolism during Early Infancy: A Randomized, Double-Blinded Controlled Trial.

Protein intake is higher in formula-fed than in breast-fed infants during infancy, which may lead to an increased risk of being overweight. Applying alpha-lactalbumin (α-lac)-enriched whey or casein glycomacropeptide (CGMP)-reduced whey to infant formula may enable further reduction of formula protein by improving the amino acid profile. Growth, nutrient intake, and protein metabolites were evaluated in a randomized, prospective, double-blinded intervention trial where term infants received standard formula (SF:2.2 g protein/100 kcal; n = 83) or low-protein formulas with α-lac-enriched whey (α-lac-EW;1.75 g protein/100 kcal; n = 82) or CGMP-reduced whey (CGMP-RW;1.76 g protein/100 kcal; n = 80) from 2 to 6 months. Breast-fed infants (BF; n = 83) served as reference. Except between 4 and 6 months, when weight gain did not differ between α-lac-EW and BF (p = 0.16), weight gain was higher in all formula groups compared to BF. Blood urea nitrogen did not differ between low-protein formula groups and BF during intervention, but was lower than in SF. Essential amino acids were similar or higher in α-lac-EW and CGMP-RW compared to BF. Conclusion: Low-protein formulas enriched with α-lac-enriched or CGMP-reduced whey supports adequate growth, with more similar weight gain in α-lac-enriched formula group and BF, and with metabolic profiles closer to that of BF infants.

Occurrence and risk assessment of 3-monochloropropanediols esters (3-MCPDE), 2-monochloropropanediol esters (2-MCPDE), and glycidyl esters (GE) in commercial infant formula samples from Malaysia.

The presence of 3-monochloropropanediol esters (3-MCPDE), 2-monochloropropanediol esters (2-MCPDE) and glycidyl esters (GE) in infant formula products has raised serious concerns. They incorporate vegetable oils, particularly palm-based oils, which are well-known to contain large amounts of these process contaminants. An analysis was conducted on infant formula samples (n = 16) obtained from the Malaysian market to determine the levels of 3-MCPDE, 2-MCPDE and GE using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The method was validated, with a limit of quantification (LOQ) on instrument of 0.10 µg/g for all analytes. The median concentrations of 3-MCPDE, 2-MCPDE and GE in infant formula in this study were 0.008 µg/g, 0.003 µg/g and 0.002 µg/g respectively. The estimated dietary intakes calculated from consumption of infant formula show higher exposures to infants within the age group of 0 to 5 months, highest for GE (1.61 µg/kg bw/day), followed by 3-MCPDE (0.68 µg/kg bw/day) and 2-MCPDE (0.41 µg/kg bw/day) compared to the age group of 6 to 12 months. Only one sample, relating to GE exposure is a potential risk for both age groups with MOE value below 25,000.

Evaluation of a Plant-Based Infant Formula Containing Almonds and Buckwheat on Gut Microbiota Composition, Intestine Morphology, Metabolic and Immune Markers in a Neonatal Piglet Model.

A controlled-neonatal piglet trial was conducted to evaluate the impact of a plant-based infant formula containing buckwheat and almonds as the main source of protein compared to a commercially available dairy-based formula on the gut health parameters. Two day old piglets were fed either a plant-based or a dairy-based formula until day 21. Gut microbiome, cytokines, growth and metabolism related outcomes, and intestinal morphology were evaluated to determine the safety of the plant-based infant formula. This study reported that the plant-based formula-fed piglets had a similar intestinal microbiota composition relative to the dairy-based formula-fed group. However, differential abundance of specific microbiota species was detected within each diet group in the small and large intestinal regions and fecal samples. Lactobacillus delbrueckii, Lactobacillus crispatus, and Fusobacterium sp. had higher abundance in the small intestine of plant-based formula-fed piglets compared to the dairy-based group. Bacteroides nordii, Enterococcus sp., Lactobacillus crispatus, Prevotella sp., Ruminococcus lactaris, Bacteroides nordii, Eisenbergiella sp., Lactobacillus crispatus, Prevotella sp., and Akkermansia muciniphila had greater abundance in the large intestine of the plant based diet fed piglets relative to the dairy-based diet group. In the feces, Clostridiales, Bacteroides uniformis, Butyricimonasvirosa, Cloacibacillus porcorum, Clostridium clostridioforme, and Fusobacterium sp. were abundant in dairy-based group relative to the plant-based group. Lachnospiraceae, Clostridium scindens, Lactobacillus coleohominis, and Prevetolla sp. had greater abundance in the feces of the plant-based group in comparison to the dairy-based group. Gut morphology was similar between the plant and the dairy-based formula-fed piglets. Circulatory cytokines, magnesium, triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), vitamin D, vitamin K, and IgE levels were similar among all piglets independent of dietary group. Overall, the present study demonstrated that a plant-based formula with buckwheat and almonds as the primary source of protein can support similar gut microbiota growth and health outcomes compared to a dairy-based infant formula.