PRDM16 regulates a temporal transcriptional program to promote progression of cortical neural progenitors.

Radial glia (RG) in the neocortex sequentially generate distinct subtypes of projection neurons, accounting for the diversity and complex assembly of cortical neural circuits. Mechanisms that drive the rapid and precise temporal progression of RG are beginning to be elucidated. Here, we reveal that the RG-specific transcriptional regulator PRDM16 promotes the transition of early to late phase of neurogenesis in the mouse neocortex. Loss of Prdm16 delays the timely progression of RG, leading to defective cortical laminar organization. Our genomic analyses demonstrate that PRDM16 regulates a subset of genes that are dynamically expressed between early and late neurogenesis. We show that PRDM16 suppresses target gene expression through limiting chromatin accessibility of permissive enhancers. We further confirm that crucial target genes regulated by PRDM16 are neuronal specification genes, cell cycle regulators and molecules required for neuronal migration. These findings provide evidence to support the finding that neural progenitors temporally shift the gene expression program to achieve neural cell diversity.

PRDM16 expression and function in mammalian cochlear development.

BACKGROUND: PR domain containing 16 (PRDM16) is a key transcriptional regulator in the development of craniofacial, adipose, and neural tissues. Our lab identified PRDM16 expression in the epithelial cells of the Kölliker's organ (KO) that starts at ~E13.5 and is maintained until KO disappearance. A transgenic mouse model that carries a gene trap null allele of Prdm16 (Prdm16cGT ) was used to characterize the impact of Prdm16 loss on cochlear development. RESULTS: At P0 Prdm16cGT null cochlea exhibited hypoplastic KO, shortened cochlear duct, increased density of hair cells (HCs) and supporting cells (SCs) in the apical turn as well as multiple isolated ectopic HCs within the KO domain. KO epithelial cells proliferation rate was reduced in the apical turn of the developing Prdm16cGT null cochlea vs controls. Bulk RNA sequencing of cochlear duct cells at E14.5 followed by quantitative real time PCR and mRNA Fluorescence in-situ hybridization (FISH) validation identified differentially expressed genes in Prdm16cGT null vs littermate control cochleae. Upregulated genes at E14.5 included Fgf20, as well as several Notch pathway genes (Lfng, Hes1, and Jag1). CONCLUSIONS: This study characterizes Prdm16 expression during cochlear development and establishes its requirement for KO development.

SPECC1L regulates palate development downstream of IRF6.

SPECC1L mutations have been identified in patients with rare atypical orofacial clefts and with syndromic cleft lip and/or palate (CL/P). These mutations cluster in the second coiled-coil and calponin homology domains of SPECC1L and severely affect the ability of SPECC1L to associate with microtubules. We previously showed that gene-trap knockout of Specc1l in mouse results in early embryonic lethality. We now present a truncation mutant mouse allele, Specc1lΔC510, that results in perinatal lethality. Specc1lΔC510/ΔC510 homozygotes showed abnormal palate rugae but did not show cleft palate. However, when crossed with a gene-trap allele, Specc1lcGT/ΔC510 compound heterozygotes showed a palate elevation delay with incompletely penetrant cleft palate. Specc1lcGT/ΔC510 embryos exhibit transient oral epithelial adhesions at E13.5, which may delay shelf elevation. Consistent with oral adhesions, we show periderm layer abnormalities, including ectopic apical expression of adherens junction markers, similar to Irf6 hypomorphic mutants and Arhgap29 heterozygotes. Indeed, SPECC1L expression is drastically reduced in Irf6 mutant palatal shelves. Finally, we wanted to determine if SPECC1L deficiency also contributed to non-syndromic (ns) CL/P. We sequenced 62 Caucasian, 89 Filipino, 90 Ethiopian, 90 Nigerian and 95 Japanese patients with nsCL/P and identified three rare coding variants (p.Ala86Thr, p.Met91Iso and p.Arg546Gln) in six individuals. These variants reside outside of SPECC1L coiled-coil domains and result in milder functional defects than variants associated with syndromic clefting. Together, our data indicate that palate elevation is sensitive to deficiency of SPECC1L dosage and function and that SPECC1L cytoskeletal protein functions downstream of IRF6 in palatogenesis.

Mutations in IRF6 cause Van der Woude and popliteal pterygium syndromes.

Interferon regulatory factor 6 (IRF6) belongs to a family of nine transcription factors that share a highly conserved helix-turn-helix DNA-binding domain and a less conserved protein-binding domain. Most IRFs regulate the expression of interferon-alpha and -beta after viral infection, but the function of IRF6 is unknown. The gene encoding IRF6 is located in the critical region for the Van der Woude syndrome (VWS; OMIM 119300) locus at chromosome 1q32-q41 (refs 2,3). The disorder is an autosomal dominant form of cleft lip and palate with lip pits, and is the most common syndromic form of cleft lip or palate. Popliteal pterygium syndrome (PPS; OMIM 119500) is a disorder with a similar orofacial phenotype that also includes skin and genital anomalies. Phenotypic overlap and linkage data suggest that these two disorders are allelic. We found a nonsense mutation in IRF6 in the affected twin of a pair of monozygotic twins who were discordant for VWS. Subsequently, we identified mutations in IRF6 in 45 additional unrelated families affected with VWS and distinct mutations in 13 families affected with PPS. Expression analyses showed high levels of Irf6 mRNA along the medial edge of the fusing palate, tooth buds, hair follicles, genitalia and skin. Our observations demonstrate that haploinsufficiency of IRF6 disrupts orofacial development and are consistent with dominant-negative mutations disturbing development of the skin and genitalia.

Prdm16 is required for normal palatogenesis in mice.

Transcriptional cofactors are essential to the regulation of transforming growth factor beta (TGFbeta) superfamily signaling and play critical and widespread roles during embryonic development, including craniofacial development. We describe the cleft secondary palate 1 (csp1) N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea-induced mouse model of non-syndromic cleft palate (NSCP) that is caused by an intronic Prdm16 splicing mutation. Prdm16 encodes a transcriptional cofactor that regulates TGFbeta signaling, and its expression pattern is consistent with a role in palate and craniofacial development. The cleft palate (CP) appears to be the result of micrognathia and failed palate shelf elevation due to physical obstruction by the tongue, resembling human Pierre Robin sequence (PRS)-like cleft secondary palate. PRDM16 should be considered a candidate for mutation in human clefting disorders, especially NSCP and PRS-like CP.

Genome-wide identification of mouse congenital heart disease loci.

Empirical evidence supporting a genetic basis for the etiology of congenital heart disease (CHD) is limited and few disease-causing mutations have been identified. To identify novel CHD genes, we performed a forward genetic screen to identify mutant mouse lines with heritable CHD. Lines with recessive N-ethyl-N-nitrsourea-induced CHD-causing mutations were identified using a three-generation backcross. A hierarchical screening protocol was used to test the hypothesis that the fetal-to-neonatal circulatory transition unmasks the specific structural heart defects observed in CHD. Mice with heart defects were efficiently ascertained by selecting for pups exhibiting perinatal lethality and characterizing their cardiac pathology. A marked increase of perinatal lethality was observed in the mutagen-treated cohort compared with an untreated backcross population. Cardiac pathology on perinatal lethals revealed cardiovascular defects in 79 pups from 47 of 321 mutagenized lines. All identified structural abnormalities were analogous to previously described forms of human CHD. Furthermore, the phenotypic recurrence and variance patterns across all lines were similar to human CHD prevalence and recurrence patterns. We mapped the locus responsible for heritable atrioventricular septal defects in six lines (avc1-6). Our screen demonstrated that 'sporadic' CHD may have major genetic component and established a practical, efficient approach for identifying CHD candidate genes.

Phenotypes, Developmental Basis, and Genetics of Pierre Robin Complex.

The phenotype currently accepted as Pierre Robin syndrome/sequence/anomalad/complex (PR) is characterized by mandibular dysmorphology, glossoptosis, respiratory obstruction, and in some cases, cleft palate. A causative sequence of developmental events is hypothesized for PR, but few clear causal relationships between discovered genetic variants, dysregulated gene expression, precise cellular processes, pathogenesis, and PR-associated anomalies are documented. This review presents the current understanding of PR phenotypes, the proposed pathogenetic processes underlying them, select genes associated with PR, and available animal models that could be used to better understand the genetic basis and phenotypic variation of PR.

Generation of a multipurpose Prdm16 mouse allele by targeted gene trapping.

Gene trap mutagenesis is a powerful tool to create loss-of-function mutations in mice and other model organisms. Modifications of traditional gene trap cassettes, including addition of conditional features in the form of Flip-excision (FlEx) arrays to enable directional gene trap cassette inversions by Cre and Flpe site-specific recombinases, greatly enhanced their experimental potential. By taking advantage of these conditional gene trap cassettes, we developed a generic strategy for generating conditional mutations and validated this strategy in mice carrying a multipurpose allele of the Prdm16 transcription factor gene. We demonstrate that the gene trap insertion creates a null mutation replicating the Pierre Robin sequence-type cleft palate phenotype of other Prdm16 mutant mice. Consecutive breeding to Flpe and Emx1IREScre deleter mice spatially restricted Prdm16 loss to regions of the forebrain expressing the homeobox gene Emx1, demonstrating the utility of the technology for the analysis of tissue-specific gene functions.

SPECC1L deficiency results in increased adherens junction stability and reduced cranial neural crest cell delamination.

Cranial neural crest cells (CNCCs) delaminate from embryonic neural folds and migrate to pharyngeal arches, which give rise to most mid-facial structures. CNCC dysfunction plays a prominent role in the etiology of orofacial clefts, a frequent birth malformation. Heterozygous mutations in SPECC1L have been identified in patients with atypical and syndromic clefts. Here, we report that in SPECC1L-knockdown cultured cells, staining of canonical adherens junction (AJ) components, ß-catenin and E-cadherin, was increased, and electron micrographs revealed an apico-basal diffusion of AJs. To understand the role of SPECC1L in craniofacial morphogenesis, we generated a mouse model of Specc1l deficiency. Homozygous mutants were embryonic lethal and showed impaired neural tube closure and CNCC delamination. Staining of AJ proteins was increased in the mutant neural folds. This AJ defect is consistent with impaired CNCC delamination, which requires AJ dissolution. Further, PI3K-AKT signaling was reduced and apoptosis was increased in Specc1l mutants. In vitro, moderate inhibition of PI3K-AKT signaling in wildtype cells was sufficient to cause AJ alterations. Importantly, AJ changes induced by SPECC1L-knockdown were rescued by activating the PI3K-AKT pathway. Together, these data indicate SPECC1L as a novel modulator of PI3K-AKT signaling and AJ biology, required for neural tube closure and CNCC delamination.

Critical thinking and reflection exercises in a biochemistry course to improve prospective health professions students' attitudes toward physician-pharmacist collaboration.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the impact of performing critical-thinking and reflection assignments within interdisciplinary learning teams in a biochemistry course on pharmacy students' and prospective health professions students' collaboration scores. DESIGN: Pharmacy students and prospective medical, dental, and other health professions students enrolled in a sequence of 2 required biochemistry courses. They were randomly assigned to interdisciplinary learning teams in which they were required to complete case assignments, thinking and reflection exercises, and a team service-learning project. ASSESSMENT: Students were asked to complete the Scale of Attitudes Toward Physician-Pharmacist Collaboration prior to the first course, following the first course, and following the second course. The physician-pharmacist collaboration scores of prospective health professions students increased significantly (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Having prospective health professions students work in teams with pharmacy students to think and reflect in and outside the classroom improves their attitudes toward physician-pharmacist collaboration.

Interprofessional workshop to improve mutual understanding between pharmacy and medical students.

OBJECTIVE: To measure changes in pharmacy and medical students' physician-pharmacist collaboration scores resulting from a workshop designed to promote understanding of the others' roles in health care. METHODS: More than 88% of first-year pharmacy (n = 215) and medical (n = 205) students completed the Scale of Attitudes Toward Physician-Pharmacist Collaboration on 3 occasions in order to establish a baseline of median scores and to determine whether the scores were influenced by an interprofessional workshop. RESULTS: Participation in the interprofessional workshop increased pharmacy students' collaboration scores above baseline (p=0.02) and raised the scores of medical students on the education component of the collaboration survey instrument (p=0.015). The collaboration scores of pharmacy students greatly exceeded those of medical students (p<0.0001). CONCLUSION: A workshop designed to foster interprofessional understanding between pharmacy and medical students raised the physician-pharmacist collaboration scores of both. Crucial practical goals for the future include raising the collaboration scores of medical students to those of pharmacy students.

A transient transgenic RNAi strategy for rapid characterization of gene function during embryonic development.

RNA interference (RNAi) is a powerful strategy for studying the phenotypic consequences of reduced gene expression levels in model systems. To develop a method for the rapid characterization of the developmental consequences of gene dysregulation, we tested the use of RNAi for "transient transgenic" knockdown of mRNA in mouse embryos. These methods included lentiviral infection as well as transposition using the Sleeping Beauty (SB) and PiggyBac (PB) transposable element systems. This approach can be useful for phenotypic validation of putative mutant loci, as we demonstrate by confirming that knockdown of Prdm16 phenocopies the ENU-induced cleft palate (CP) mutant, csp1. This strategy is attractive as an alternative to gene targeting in embryonic stem cells, as it is simple and yields phenotypic information in a matter of weeks. Of the three methodologies tested, the PB transposon system produced high numbers of transgenic embryos with the expected phenotype, demonstrating its utility as a screening method.

SNP2RFLP: a computational tool to facilitate genetic mapping using benchtop analysis of SNPs.

Genome-wide analysis of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers is an extremely efficient means for genetic mapping of mutations or traits in mice. However, this approach often defines a relatively large recombinant interval. To facilitate the refinement of this interval, we developed the program SNP2RFLP. This program can be used to identify region-specific SNPs in which the polymorphic nucleotide creates a restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) that can be readily assayed at the benchtop using restriction enzyme digestion of SNP-containing PCR products. The program permits user-defined queries that maximize the informative markers for a particular application. This facilitates fine-mapping in a region containing a mutation of interest, which should prove valuable to the mouse genetics community. SNP2RFLP and further details are publicly available at http://genetics.bwh.harvard.edu/snp2rflp/ .

Utilization of a whole genome SNP panel for efficient genetic mapping in the mouse.

Phenotype-driven genetics can be used to create mouse models of human disease and birth defects. However, the utility of these mutant models is limited without identification of the causal gene. To facilitate genetic mapping, we developed a fixed single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) panel of 394 SNPs as an alternative to analyses using simple sequence length polymorphism (SSLP) marker mapping. With the SNP panel, chromosomal locations for 22 monogenic mutants were identified. The average number of affected progeny genotyped for mapped monogenic mutations is nine. Map locations for several mutants have been obtained with as few as four affected progeny. The average size of genetic intervals obtained for these mutants is 43 Mb, with a range of 17-83 Mb. Thus, our SNP panel allows for identification of moderate resolution map position with small numbers of mice in a high-throughput manner. Importantly, the panel is suitable for mapping crosses from many inbred and wild-derived inbred strain combinations. The chromosomal localizations obtained with the SNP panel allow one to quickly distinguish between potentially novel loci or remutations in known genes, and facilitates fine mapping and positional cloning. By using this approach, we identified DNA sequence changes in two ethylnitrosourea-induced mutants.