Early life adversity and obesity risk in adolescence: a 9-year population-based prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: There are few prospective studies of factors that mediate the association between exposure to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and obesity in adolescence. Our aim was to address this limitation. METHODS: We used prospective data from the Growing up in Ireland cohort study, with measurements at 9, 13, and 18 years old. The exposures were 14 adverse experiences before age 9. The main outcome was body mass index (BMI) at 18 years. Mediators were daily activity, diet quality, self-image and behavioural difficulties at 13 years. RESULTS: Among the 4561 adolescents in the final cohort, 77.2% experienced any adversity, 50.5% were female and 26.7% were overweight/obese at 18 years. BMI Z was higher at ages 9 (0.54 vs 0.43, p < 0.05, 95% CI of difference: -0.22, -0.01) and 13 years (0.50 vs 0.35, p < 0.05, 95% CI of difference: -0.25, -0.06), in those exposed to an ACE, compared to those unexposed. Structural equation models revealed that behavioural difficulties (ß = 0.01; 95% CI: 0.007-0.018, p < 0.001) and self-concept (ß = 0.0027; 95% CI: 0.0004-0.0050, p = 0.026) indirectly mediate the association between exposure to ACEs and BMI at 18 years. CONCLUSIONS: The association between ACEs and BMI in adolescence is mediated by behavioural difficulties and self-concept. IMPACT: In a previous study, we found modest associations between exposure to a range of adverse childhood experiences and weight gain at 13 years of age. The strength of the association between adverse childhood experiences and weight gain was lower at 18 years of age compared to the association observed at 13 years and was no longer significant after controlling for confounding and including possible mediators. The association between adverse childhood experiences and BMI in adolescence is indirectly mediated by behavioural difficulties and self-concept.

The effect of plant sterol-enriched turkey meat on cholesterol bio-accessibility during in vitro digestion and Caco-2 cell uptake.

This study evaluated the effect of a plant sterol-enriched turkey product on cholesterol bio-accessibility during in vitro digestion and cholesterol uptake by Caco-2 monolayers. Turkey products, one plant sterol-enriched (PS) and one plant sterol-free (C), were produced in an industrial pilot plant. Before simulated digestion, matrices were spiked with cholesterol (1:5 weight ratio of cholesterol to plant sterol). Plant sterols were included at a concentration equivalent to the minimum daily intake recommended by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) for cholesterol lowering. After simulated digestion, the percentage of cholesterol micellarization and uptake by Caco-2 cells in the presence of PS meat were measured. Compared to C meat, PS meat significantly inhibited cholesterol micellarization on average by 24% and Caco-2 cell accumulation by 10%. This study suggests that plant sterols in meat can reduce cholesterol uptake by intestinal epithelia and it encourages efforts to make new PS-based functional foods.

Characterisation of antimicrobial extracts from dandelion root (Taraxacum officinale) using LC-SPE-NMR.

Plant extracts have traditionally been used as sources of natural antimicrobial compounds, although in many cases, the compounds responsible for their antimicrobial efficacy have not been identified. In this study, crude and dialysed extracts from dandelion root (Taraxacum officinale) were evaluated for their antimicrobial properties against Gram positive and Gram negative bacterial strains. The methanol hydrophobic crude extract (DRE3) demonstrated the strongest inhibition of microbial growth against Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin-resistant S. aureus and Bacillus cereus strains. Normal phase (NP) fractionation of DRE3 resulted in two fractions (NPF4 and NPF5) with enhanced antimicrobial activity. Further NP fractionation of NPF4 resulted in two fractions (NPF403 and NPF406) with increased antimicrobial activity. Further isolation and characterisation of compounds in NPF406 using liquid chromatography solid phase extraction nuclear magnetic resonance LC-SPE-NMR resulted in the identification of 9-hydroxyoctadecatrienoic acid and 9-hydroxyoctadecadienoic acid, while the phenolic compounds vanillin, coniferaldehyde and p-methoxyphenylglyoxylic acid were also identified respectively. The molecular mass of these compounds was confirmed by LC mass spectroscopy (MS)/MS. In summary, the antimicrobial efficacy of dandelion root extracts demonstrated in this study support the use of dandelion root as a source of natural antimicrobial compounds.

Quality and sensory acceptability of a chilled functional apple ready-dessert.

An apple and dairy based ready-dessert with an added prebiotic was stored and chill temperatures and number of quality attributes were monitored during chill (4 °C) storage for 30 days. All ready-desserts were thermally processed by sous vide (P (90) > 10 min). The stability of the dairy component in ready-desserts was monitored by measuring volatile free fatty acids. Changes in these components were more evident in prebiotic-enriched samples compared to controls. However, no significant differences were observed over storage in control and prebiotic-enriched ready-desserts. This was supported by sensory analysis that showed no significant changes over storage in control or prebiotic-enriched samples. Of the other quality parameters, the addition of prebiotic inclusions resulted in lower L and b values and dry matter (p < 0.05), while increasing (p < 0.05) soluble solids content compared to control samples. Fluctuations in some of the quality parameters were also observed over storage. Rheological characteristics, i.e. flow behaviour (n), consistency index (K), storage (G'), loss (G″) and complex (G*) moduli were unaffected by prebiotic inclusion. However, storage affected the rheological characteristics of ready-desserts. A decrease (p < 0.05) in flow behaviour (n) led to concomitant increases in consistency index (K) and complex modulus (G*) values in control samples.

Quality and antioxidant properties of fresh-cut apple wedges from 10 cultivars during modified atmosphere packaging storage.

Antioxidant activity and quality parameters of skin-on apple wedges from 10 cultivars were examined during chill storage and over two growing seasons. Storage of fresh-cut apple wedges had a significant impact on quality parameter indices such as browning index (p < 0.001) and texture firmness (p < 0.001). Headspace gas analysis indicated that the degree of browning negatively correlated to oxygen (-0.69) and positively (0.70) correlated to carbon dioxide levels. Antioxidant capacity as assessed by three in vitro methods (DPPH, FRAP and ORAC) decreased significantly for 9 of the 10 cultivars after 5 days of storage at 3 ± 1 °C (p < 0.001). These indices increased in case of Shampion apples over the same storage period for all three assays. With regard to antioxidant capacity and quality parameters, the cultivars Gloster, Alwa, Idared and Jonica were the best performing overall and could therefore be recommended as a core ingredient in fresh-cut fruit products.

Thermal Inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes in Crab Meat.

Listeria monocytogenes is an important bacterial pathogen in seafood products, but limited information is currently available on the thermal resistance of relevant isolates in seafood. Thermal inactivation studies were undertaken (i) to provide much needed thermal inactivation data for L. monocytogenes in crab meat and (ii) to investigate whether tryptone soya broth (TSB) is representative of crab meat in thermal inactivation studies involving L. monocytogenes. D-values were obtained for a cocktail of two crab isolates (serotypes 1/2a and 4b) at 50, 55, and 60°C. In crab meat, D-values were 174.4, 28.2, and 1.6 min, respectively. Similar D-values of 176.4, 28.8, and 1.4 min were obtained in TSB. The corresponding z-values were 4.9°C (crab meat) and 4.8°C (TSB), respectively. The conclusions were that (i) current pasteurization conditions (e.g., 70°C for 2 min) would achieve complete destruction of any L. monocytogenes present in crab meat and (ii) TSB could be used as a model matrix for assessing the thermal inactivation of L. monocytogenes in crab meat.

An assessment of the application of ultrasound in the processing of ready-to-eat whole brown crab (Cancer pagurus).

This study assesses the potential of incorporating ultrasound as a processing aid in the production of whole cooked brown crab (Cancer pagurus). The FDA recommended heat treatment to reduce Listeria monocytogenes by 6 log10 cycles in this product is a F707.5 of 2min. An equivalent F value was applied at 75°C in presence and absence of ultrasound in water alone or in water with 5% w/v NaCl added. Heat penetration, turbidity and conductivity of the cook water and also salt and moisture content of the crab meat (white and brown) were determined. Ultrasound assisted cooking allowed a reduction of the cooking time by up to 15% while still maintaining an F707.5 of 2min. Ultrasound also enhanced the rate and total amount of compounds released from the crab, which suggests that crabs cooked in the presence of ultrasound would be expected to be cleaner. Ultrasound also proved to be effective in reducing the salt content but hardly affected the final moisture content of the crab meat.

The use of dielectric properties and other physical analyses for assessing protein denaturation in beef biceps femoris muscle during cooking from 5 to 85°C.

Dielectric properties of beef biceps femoris muscle were recorded during heating (5-85°C) to assess their linkage to phase changes monitored by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and rheology. DSC indicated endotherms between 56 and 81°C corresponding to denaturation of actin, collagen and myosin. Matching changes in dielectric properties (dielectric constant (ε') and loss factor (ε″)) were noted at radio and/or microwave frequencies though the nature of the change differed depending upon frequency. The main observation in ε' was an increase above 65-66°C, most likely due to fluid release on collagen denaturation. This fluid plus liquid from myosin denaturation most likely solvated ions freed during myosin denaturation which manifested as an ε″ increase. However, it must be noted that meat structural protein denaturation is compounded with physical shrinkage which can also influence dielectric properties. Rheological parameters of beef muscle heated from 5 to 85°C also displayed marked changes relating to structural protein denaturation.

Quality of deli-style turkey enriched with plant sterols.

Low-fat meat products could be excellent carriers for plant sterols, known for their cholesterol-lowering properties. In this study, we developed a protocol for the manufacture of a deli-style turkey enriched with plant sterols (S) at a level sufficient to deliver the maximum plant sterols amount recommended for cholesterol reduction by the European Food Safety Authority (3 g of plant sterols per day) in a 70 g portion. We investigated the stability of the plant sterols and the effects of their addition on the product quality. Plant sterols remained stable during the seven-day storage period. The addition of plant sterols significantly affected some texture parameters, shear force, lipid oxidation, L values and water-holding capacity compared with control (C). Sensory analysis was carried out by an untrained panel (32) using the difference-from-control test between C and S samples to evaluate first the extent of the overall sensory difference and then the extent of sensory difference on colour, texture and flavour. Results indicated that panellists considered the intensity of the difference between C and S samples to be 'small'. Plant sterols could be used as a potential health-promoting meat ingredient with no effect on plant sterol stability but with some effects on texture and sensory characteristics.

A survey of the dielectric properties of meats and ingredients used in meat product manufacture.

The objective of the present study was to improve understanding of interactions between microwave (MW) and radio frequency (RF) radiation and meat/meat products. Dielectric properties at 27.12, 915 and 2450 MHz of lean, fat, aqueous solutions/suspensions and meat blends of typical ingredients used in meat product manufacture were measured. In addition temperature rises of ingredient/meat blends were compared following RF or MW heating. Frequency affected dielectric properties as did composition, with fat having lower dielectric activity than lean. Dielectric properties at MW frequencies appeared more sensitive to composition changes. Ingredients could be subdivided into groups having either lower or higher dielectric activity than lean, with concentration influencing which group an ingredient fell into. When low and high dielectric activity ingredients were incorporated into lean meats dielectric properties did not correlate well with temperature rises indicating the importance of other factors in addition to dielectric properties in determining temperature rise.

Human exposure modelling of quercetin in onions (Allium cepa L.) following thermal processing.

Post-harvest treatment can influence levels of secondary metabolites in fruits and vegetables. Onions contain high levels of quercetin but are commonly heat-treated before consumption. Hence, the objective of this study was to examine the effect of cooking treatments on the flavonoid (3,4'-Qdg and 4'-Qmg) concentrations in onion and to determine, by simulation modelling, probable human exposure. Onion samples (n=3) were cooked using three processes (fry, bake and steam) for three time intervals (5, 10 and 15 min). Frying (<10 min) was the ideal cooking method which retained concentrations of 3,4'-Qdg and 4'-Qmg at >50%. Thermal processing (>10 min) was shown to decrease quercetin content in all samples. The simulation model predicted human absorption and exposure. Steaming (15 min) resulted in the lowest quercetin exposure, with mean values of 4000 and 400 µg/day for 3,4'-Qdg and 4'-Qmg, respectively. Untreated onions had mean exposures of 14,000 and 3000 µg/day for 3,4'-Qdg and 4'-Qmg, respectively.

Ohmic processing: Electrical conductivities of pork cuts.

Efficacy of ohmic processing can be influenced by the conductivities of individual components within the food and their behaviour and interactions during the heating process. This study relates to the determination of electrical conductivities of a selection of pork meat cuts used in meat processing. Conductivity measurements of pork cuts indicated that lean is highly conductive compared to fat and addition of fat to lean reduced the overall conductivity but the addition of fat over the range (i.e. 0-100%) was non-linear. Light microscopy suggested that differences in the conductivities of leg and shoulder lean (entire) (0.76 vs. 0.64 Sm(-1), respectively) could be due to the denser muscle fibre structure and/or higher intra-muscular fat in shoulder vs. leg. This could be of significance for ohmic processing of full muscle products.

Dielectric and thermophysical properties of meat batters over a temperature range of 5-85 °C.

Dielectric (dielectric constant (ε(')) and loss factor (ε″)) and thermal (heat capacity (c), thermal conductivity (k) and thermal diffusivity (α))) properties of two meat batters (pork luncheon roll (PLR) and white pudding (WP)) were measured between 5 and 85 °C. Radio frequency (RF) and microwave (MW) ε″ values varied across 5-85 °C (P<0.05). MW ε(') and ε″ values for WP tended to peak at 45 °C and decrease thereafter, whereas for PLR, ε(') and ε″ peaked at 65 °C which appeared to match potato starch gelatinisation within this product. WP and PLR had significantly higher c values at 25 °C, which corresponded to the MP of pork fat. For PLR, an additional c peak was noted at 65 °C, which appeared to correspond to potato starch gelatinisation. At 85 °C, k values were higher (P<0.05) than at 5, 25 and 45 °C but were not higher than values at 65 °C. α values increased with temperature (P<0.05).

Investigating the potential of under-utilised plants from the Asteraceae family as a source of natural antimicrobial and antioxidant extracts.

Antimicrobial properties of ethanol and water extracts from eight Asteraceae species were investigated against three Gram positive (Staphylococcus aureus, MRSA and Bacillus cereus) and two Gram negative (Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium) bacterial strains. Ethanol extracts from Centaurea scabiosa, Arctium minus, Taraxacum officinale, Centaurea nigra and Cirsium palustre demonstrated antimicrobial activity against strains of S. aureus, MRSA and B. cereus (MIC=187.5-365µg/ml). Ethanol extracts also had higher antioxidant activities and phenolic content demonstrating a link between these compounds and the bioactivity of these extracts. Further investigation into the phenolic content of ethanol extracts using UPLC-MS/MS lead to the identification and quantification of numerous phenolic compounds in all species including; 18 from Cirsium arvense, 16 from Cirsium vulgare, 19 from C. palustre, 15 from C. nigra, 17 from C. scabiosa, 14 from Sonchus asper, 17 from A. minus and 11 from T. officinale.

4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid derivatives of inositol from dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) root characterised using LC-SPE-NMR and LC-MS techniques.

The combination of hyphenated techniques, LC-SPE-NMR and LC-MS, to isolate and identify minor isomeric compounds from an ethyl acetate fraction of Taraxacum officinale root was employed in this study. Two distinct fractions of 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid derivatives of inositol were isolated and characterised by spectroscopic methods. The (1)H NMR spectra and MS data revealed two groups of compounds, one of which were derivatives of the di-4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid derivative of the inositol compound tetrahydroxy-5-[2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)acetyl] oxycyclohexyl-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl) acetate, while the other group consisted of similar tri-substituted inositol derivatives. For both fractions the derivatives of inositols vary in the number of 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid groups present and their position and geometry on the inositol ring. In total, three di-substituted and three tri-substituted 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid inositol derivates were identified for the first time along with a further two previously reported di-substituted inositol derivatives.

Polyacetylene levels in carrot juice, effect of pH and thermal processing.

This research focuses on the study of polyacetylenes in carrot juice and their response to pH, storage and thermal processing conditions. Falcarindiol-3-acetate (FaDOAc) and falcarinol (FaOH) were in fresh carrot juice at concentrations of 73 and 233 µg/L, respectively. Reducing the pH of the raw carrot juice from its natural pH 6.13 to pH 3.5 resulted in 2 and 5 fold better extraction of FaDOAc and FaOH respectively in comparison to a control sample (pH 6.13). Polyacetylenes were retained better in acidified juices and cold storage temperatures (4 °C) for first week of storage with respect to untreated juices. An increase in FaDOAc and FaOH of 10- and 16-fold, respectively, as compared to raw unprocessed samples was observed when processing samples at 90 °C for 1 min. This was assumed to be due to cell wall polysaccharides dissolution. However, negative correlation between total polyacetylenes and hexoses was confirmed by (1)H NMR spectroscopy, indicating some biological links between polyacetylenes and soluble sugars.

Antioxidant properties and quantitative UPLC-MS analysis of phenolic compounds from extracts of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) seeds and bitter melon (Momordica charantia) fruit.

Freeze-dried fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) seeds and bitter melon (Momordica charantia) fruit were extracted sequentially using non-polar to polar solvents, with further separation carried out on polar extracts by molecular weight cut off dialysis. The fenugreek ethyl acetate crude extract (FGE3) demonstrated the highest antioxidant activity, in terms of Trolox Equivalents (TE), for both the DPPH (35.338±0.908 mg TE/g) and FRAP (77.352±0.627 mg TE/g) assays. This extract also contained the highest phenolic content, in terms of Gallic Acid Equivalents (GAE) (106.316±0.377 mg GAE/g). Despite having considerably lower antioxidant activity than fenugreek, the highest antioxidant activities for bitter fruit were observed in the hexane (BME1) and methanol hydrophilic<3.5 kDa dialysed (BME4<3.5 kDa) extracts, while the highest phenolic content was found in the methanol hydrophilic>3.5 kDa (BME4>3.5 kDa) dialysed extract. UPLC-MS was used to quantify 18 phenolic compounds from fenugreek and 13 from bitter melon in active crude extracts. The flavonoids apigenin-7-O-glycoside (1955.55 ng/mg) and luteolin-7-O-glycoside (725.50 ng/mg) were the most abundant compounds in FGE3, while bitter melon extracts contained only small amounts of mainly phenolic acids. A further 5 fenugreek and 1 bitter melon compounds were identified in trace amounts from the same extracts, respectively.

Effect of ultrasound and blanching pretreatments on polyacetylene and carotenoid content of hot air and freeze dried carrot discs.

The effect of ultrasound and blanching pretreatments on polyacetylene (falcarinol, falcarindiol and falcarindiol-3-acetate) and carotenoid compounds of hot air and freeze dried carrot discs was investigated. Ultrasound pretreatment followed by hot air drying (UPHD) at the highest amplitude and treatment time investigated resulted in higher retention of polyacetylenes and carotenoids in dried carrot discs than blanching followed by hot air drying. Freeze dried samples had a higher retention of polyacetylene and carotenoid compounds compared to hot air dried samples. Color parameters were strongly correlated with carotenoids (p<0.05). This study shows that ultrasound pretreatment is a potential alternative to conventional blanching treatment in the drying of carrots.

Application of response surface methodology to optimize pressurized liquid extraction of antioxidant compounds from sage (Salvia officinalis L.), basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.).

The present study optimized pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) conditions using Dionex ASE® 200, USA to maximize the antioxidant activity [Ferric ion Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP)] and total polyphenol content (TP) of the extracts from three spices of Lamiaceae family (sage, basil and thyme). Optimal conditions with regard to extraction temperature (66-129 °C) and solvent concentration (32-88% methanol) were identified using response surface methodology (RSM). For all three spices, results showed that 129 °C was the optimum temperature with regard to antioxidant activity. Optimal methanol concentrations with respect to the antioxidant activity of sage and basil extracts were 58% and 60% respectively. Thyme showed a different trend with regard to methanol concentration and was optimally extracted at 33%. Antioxidant activity yields of the optimal PLE were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than solid/liquid extracts. Predicted models were highly significant (p < 0.05) for both total phenol (TP) and FRAP values in all the spices with high regression coefficients (R(2)) ranging from 0.651 to 0.999.

Effect of ultrasound processing on anthocyanins and color of red grape juice.

Grape juice samples were sonicated with processing variables of amplitude level (24.4-61.0microm) and treatment time (0-10min) at a constant frequency of 20kHz and pulse durations of 5s on and 5s off. A full factorial experimental design with regression modeling was employed to investigate the main effects of amplitude level and treatment time on anthocyanins and color parameters. Significant effects of sonication on major anthocyanins cyanidin-3-O-glucosides (CA), malvanidin-3-O-glucosides (MA) and delphinidin-3-O-glucosides (DA), color values (L*, a*, b*) and color index (CI) were observed. Prediction models were found to be significant (p<0.05) with low standard errors and high coefficients of determination (R(2)). Model predictions for critical quality parameters of anthocyanins (CA; MA; DA), color values (L*, a*, b*), TCD and CI inactivation were closely correlated to the experimental results obtained. Significant retention of anthocyanin content in grape juice was observed for CA (97.5 %); MA (48.2 %) and DA (80.9%) during sonication. CI and other color combinations (L*a*b*, L*a*/b* and L*b*/a*) were found to be strongly correlated with anthocyanin content. This study shows that sonication could be employed for as a preservation technique for fruit juice processing where anthocyanin retention is desired.