CloMet: A Novel Open-Source and Modular Software Platform That Connects Established Metabolomics Repositories and Data Analysis Resources.

The field of metabolomics has witnessed the development of hundreds of computational tools, but only a few have become cornerstones of this field. While MetaboLights and Metabolomics Workbench are two well-established data repositories for metabolomics data sets, Workflows4Metabolomics and MetaboAnalyst are two well-established web-based data analysis platforms for metabolomics. Yet, the raw data stored in the aforementioned repositories lack standardization in terms of the file system format used to store the associated acquisition files. Consequently, it is not straightforward to reuse available data sets as input data in the above-mentioned data analysis resources, especially for non-expert users. This paper presents CloMet, a novel open-source modular software platform that contributes to standardization, reusability, and reproducibility in the metabolomics field. CloMet, which is available through a Docker file, converts raw and NMR-based metabolomics data from MetaboLights and Metabolomics Workbench to a file format that can be used directly either in MetaboAnalyst or in Workflows4Metabolomics. We validated both CloMet and the output data using data sets from these repositories. Overall, CloMet fills the gap between well-established data repositories and web-based statistical platforms and contributes to the consolidation of a data-driven perspective of the metabolomics field by leveraging and connecting existing data and resources.

Gulls as potential sentinels for urban litter: combining nest and GPS-tracking information.

The production of urban waste has increased in the past decades leading to its mishandling. The effects on public health, economy, and wildlife that waste mismanagement can have are forcing governments to increase their efforts in detecting and mitigating the presence of waste. Identifying and monitoring sentinel species to assess the presence of urban litter could be a cost-effective option. Thus, analyzing the nest composition of yellow-legged gulls from an urban population inhabiting a very high populated city (Barcelona, Spain), and combining this information with accurate GPS tracking data, provides a potential tool to monitor the presence of marine and terrestrial litter over time. The results revealed the highest presence of debris in the nests of a seabird ever recorded. All the nests examined contained anthropogenic waste, with plastic items present in all of them. Crossing the nest composition with GPS tracking movements confirmed that the waste to build the nests was collected in the urban area and not in other environments surrounding the city. Then, the nest waste composition may be a good indicator of waste mismanagement and advise the municipalities to improve waste management and recycling strategies for the different types of litter. Using gulls breeding in cities as sentinel species and, in particular, the study of their nest composition, may provide essential data to decision-making stakeholders to adopt a One Health approach and help improve not only the environment's health but also the health of those who live in it.

Independent evolution of intermediate bill widths in a seabird clade.

Interspecific introgression can occur between species that evolve rapidly within an adaptive radiation. Pachyptila petrels differ in bill size and are characterised by incomplete reproductive isolation, leading to interspecific gene flow. Salvin's prion (Pachyptila salvini), whose bill width is intermediate between broad-billed (P. vittata) and Antarctic (P. desolata) prions, evolved through homoploid hybrid speciation. MacGillivray's prion (P. macgillivrayi), known from a single population on St Paul (Indian Ocean), has a bill width intermediate between salvini and vittata and could also be the product of interspecies introgression or hybrid speciation. Recently, another prion population phenotypically similar to macgillivrayi was discovered on Gough (Atlantic Ocean), where it breeds 3 months later than vittata. The similarity in bill width between the medium-billed birds on Gough and macgillivrayi suggest that they could be closely related. In this study, we used genetic and morphological data to infer the phylogenetic position and evolutionary history of P. macgillivrayi and the Gough medium-billed prion relative other Pachyptila taxa, to determine whether species with medium bill widths evolved through common ancestry or convergence. We found that Gough medium-billed prions belong to the same evolutionary lineage as macgillivrayi, representing a new population of MacGillivray's prion that originated through a colonisation event from St Paul. We show that macgillivrayi's medium bill width evolved through divergence (genetic drift) and independently from that of salvini, which evolved through hybridisation (gene flow). This represents the independent convergence towards a similarly medium-billed phenotype. The newly discovered MacGillivray's prion population on Gough is of utmost conservation relevance, as the relict macgillivrayi population in the Indian Ocean is very small.

A Data-Driven Approach to Quantify and Measure Students' Engagement in Synchronous Virtual Learning Environments.

In face-to-face learning environments, instructors (sub)consciously measure student engagement to obtain immediate feedback regarding the training they are leading. This constant monitoring process enables instructors to dynamically adapt the training activities according to the perceived student reactions, which aims to keep them engaged in the learning process. However, when shifting from face-to-face to synchronous virtual learning environments (VLEs), assessing to what extent students are engaged to the training process during the lecture has become a challenging and arduous task. Typical indicators such as students' faces, gestural poses, or even hearing their voice can be easily masked by the intrinsic nature of the virtual domain (e.g., cameras and microphones can be turned off). The purpose of this paper is to propose a methodology and its associated model to measure student engagement in VLEs that can be obtained from the systematic analysis of more than 30 types of digital interactions and events during a synchronous lesson. To validate the feasibility of this approach, a software prototype has been implemented to measure student engagement in two different learning activities in a synchronous learning session: a masterclass and a hands-on session. The obtained results aim to help those instructors who feel that the connection with their students has weakened due to the virtuality of the learning environment.

Role of Academics in Transferring Knowledge and Skills on Artificial Intelligence, Internet of Things and Edge Computing.

Universities play an essential role in preparing human resources for the industry of the future. By providing the proper knowledge, they can ensure that graduates will be able to adapt to the ever-changing industrial sector. However, to achieve this, the courses provided by academia must cover the current and future industrial needs by considering the trends in scientific research and emerging technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), Internet of Things (IoT), and Edge Computing (EC). This work presents the survey results conducted among academics to assess the current state of university courses, regarding the level of knowledge and skills provided to students about the Internet of Things, Artificial Intelligence, and Edge Computing. The novelty of the work is that (a) the research was carried out in several European countries, (b) the current curricula of universities from different countries were analyzed, and (c) the results present the teachers' perspective. To conduct the research, the analysis of the relevant literature took place initially to explore the issues of the presented subject, which will increasingly concern the industry in the near future. Based on the literature review results and analysis of the universities' curricula involved in this study, a questionnaire was prepared and shared with academics. The outcomes of the analysis reveal the areas that require more attention from scholars and possibly modernization of curricula.

Industrial Needs in the Fields of Artificial Intelligence, Internet of Things and Edge Computing.

Industry 4.0 corresponds to the Fourth Industrial Revolution, resulting from technological innovation and research multidisciplinary advances. Researchers aim to contribute to the digital transformation of the manufacturing ecosystem both in theory and mainly in practice by identifying the real problems that the industry faces. Researchers focus on providing practical solutions using technologies such as the Industrial Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial Intelligence (AI), and Edge Computing (EC). On the other hand, universities educate young engineers and researchers by formulating a curriculum that prepares graduates for the industrial market. This research aimed to investigate and identify the industry's current problems and needs from an educational perspective. The research methodology is based on preparing a focused questionnaire resulting from an extensive recent literature review used to interview representatives from 70 enterprises operating in 25 countries. The produced empirical data revealed (1) the kind of data and business management systems that companies have implemented to advance the digitalization of their processes, (2) the industries' main problems and what technologies (could be) implemented to address them, and (3) what are the primary industrial needs and how they can be met to facilitate their digitization. The main conclusion is that there is a need to develop a taxonomy that shall include industrial problems and their technological solutions. Moreover, the educational needs of engineers and researchers with current knowledge and advanced skills were underlined.

Multilabel Acoustic Event Classification Using Real-World Urban Data and Physical Redundancy of Sensors.

Many people living in urban environments nowadays are overexposed to noise, which results in adverse effects on their health. Thus, urban sound monitoring has emerged as a powerful tool that might enable public administrations to automatically identify and quantify noise pollution. Therefore, identifying multiple and simultaneous acoustic sources in these environments in a reliable and cost-effective way has emerged as a hot research topic. The purpose of this paper is to propose a two-stage classifier able to identify, in real time, a set of up to 21 urban acoustic events that may occur simultaneously (i.e., multilabel), taking advantage of physical redundancy in acoustic sensors from a wireless acoustic sensors network. The first stage of the proposed system consists of a multilabel deep neural network that makes a classification for each 4-s window. The second stage intelligently aggregates the classification results from the first stage of four neighboring nodes to determine the final classification result. Conducted experiments with real-world data and up to three different computing devices show that the system is able to provide classification results in less than 1 s and that it has good performance when classifying the most common events from the dataset. The results of this research may help civic organisations to obtain actionable noise monitoring information from automatic systems.

PyFF: A Fog-Based Flexible Architecture for Enabling Privacy-by-Design IoT-Based Communal Smart Environments.

The advent of the Internet of Things (IoT) and the massive growth of devices connected to the Internet are reshaping modern societies. However, human lifestyles are not evolving at the same pace as technology, which often derives into users' reluctance and aversion. Although it is essential to consider user involvement/privacy while deploying IoT devices in a human-centric environment, current IoT architecture standards tend to neglect the degree of trust that humans require to adopt these technologies on a daily basis. In this regard, this paper proposes an architecture to enable privacy-by-design with human-in-the-loop IoT environments. In this regard, it first distills two IoT use-cases with high human interaction to analyze the interactions between human beings and IoT devices in an environment which had not previously been subject to the Internet of People principles.. Leveraging the lessons learned in these use-cases, the Privacy-enabling Fog-based and Flexible (PyFF) human-centric and human-aware architecture is proposed which brings together distributed and intelligent systems are brought together. PyFF aims to maintain end-users' privacy by involving them in the whole data lifecycle, allowing them to decide which information can be monitored, where it can be computed and the appropriate feedback channels in accordance with human-in-the-loop principles.

Additive Traits Lead to Feeding Advantage and Reproductive Isolation, Promoting Homoploid Hybrid Speciation.

Speciation through homoploid hybridization (HHS) is considered extremely rare in animals. This is mainly because the establishment of reproductive isolation as a product of hybridization is uncommon. Additionally, many traits are underpinned by polygeny and/or incomplete dominance, where the hybrid phenotype is an additive blend of parental characteristics. Phenotypically intermediate hybrids are usually at a fitness disadvantage compared with parental species and tend to vanish through backcrossing with parental population(s). It is therefore unknown whether the additive nature of hybrid traits in itself could lead successfully to HHS. Using a multi-marker genetic data set and a meta-analysis of diet and morphology, we investigated a potential case of HHS in the prions (Pachyptila spp.), seabirds distinguished by their bills, prey choice, and timing of breeding. Using approximate Bayesian computation, we show that the medium-billed Salvin's prion (Pachyptila salvini) could be a hybrid between the narrow-billed Antarctic prion (Pachyptila desolata) and broad-billed prion (Pachyptila vittata). Remarkably, P. salvini's intermediate bill width has given it a feeding advantage with respect to the other Pachyptila species, allowing it to consume a broader range of prey, potentially increasing its fitness. Available metadata showed that P. salvini is also intermediate in breeding phenology and, with no overlap in breeding times, it is effectively reproductively isolated from either parental species through allochrony. These results provide evidence for a case of HHS in nature, and show for the first time that additivity of divergent parental traits alone can lead directly to increased hybrid fitness and reproductive isolation.

Stepped Coastal Water Warming Revealed by Multiparametric Monitoring at NW Mediterranean Fixed Stations.

Since 2014, the global land and sea surface temperature has scaled 0.23 °C above the decadal average (2009-2018). Reports indicate that Mediterranean Sea temperatures have been rising at faster rates than in the global ocean. Oceanographic time series of physical and biogeochemical data collected from an onboard and a multisensor mooring array in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea (Blanes submarine canyon, Balearic Sea) during 2009-2018 revealed an abrupt temperature rising since 2014, in line with regional and global warming. Since 2014, the oligotrophic conditions of the water column have intensified, with temperature increasing 0.61 °C on the surface and 0.47 °C in the whole water column in continental shelf waters. Water transparency has increased due to a decrease in turbidity anomaly of -0.1 FTU. Since 2013, inshore chlorophyll a concentration remained below the average (-0.15 mg·l-1) and silicates showed a declining trend. The mixed layer depth showed deepening in winter and remained steady in summer. The net surface heat fluxes did not show any trend linked to the local warming, probably due to the influence of incoming offshore waters produced by the interaction between the Northern Current and the submarine canyon. Present regional and global water heating pattern is increasing the stress of highly diverse coastal ecosystems at unprecedented levels, as reported by the literature. The strengthening of the oligotrophic conditions in the study area may also apply as a cautionary warning to similar coastal ecosystems around the world following the global warming trend.

New High-Tech Flexible Networks for the Monitoring of Deep-Sea Ecosystems.

Increasing interest in the acquisition of biotic and abiotic resources from within the deep sea (e.g., fisheries, oil-gas extraction, and mining) urgently imposes the development of novel monitoring technologies, beyond the traditional vessel-assisted, time-consuming, high-cost sampling surveys. The implementation of permanent networks of seabed and water-column-cabled (fixed) and docked mobile platforms is presently enforced, to cooperatively measure biological features and environmental (physicochemical) parameters. Video and acoustic (i.e., optoacoustic) imaging are becoming central approaches for studying benthic fauna (e.g., quantifying species presence, behavior, and trophic interactions) in a remote, continuous, and prolonged fashion. Imaging is also being complemented by in situ environmental-DNA sequencing technologies, allowing the traceability of a wide range of organisms (including prokaryotes) beyond the reach of optoacoustic tools. Here, we describe the different fixed and mobile platforms of those benthic and pelagic monitoring networks, proposing at the same time an innovative roadmap for the automated computing of hierarchical ecological information on deep-sea ecosystems (i.e., from single species' abundance and life traits to community composition, and overall biodiversity).

Tracking data and retrospective analyses of diet reveal the consequences of loss of marine subsidies for an obligate scavenger, the Andean condor.

Over the last century, marine mammals have been dramatically reduced in the world's oceans. We examined evidence that this change caused dietary and foraging pattern shifts of the Andean condor (Vultur gryphus) in Patagonia. We hypothesized that, after the decrease in marine mammals and the increase in human use of coastlines, condor diet changed to a more terrestrial diet, which in turn influenced their foraging patterns. We evaluated the diet by means of stable isotope analysis (δ13C, δ15N and δ34S) of current (last decade) and historical (1841-1933) feathers. We further evaluated the movement patterns of 23 condors using satellite tracking of individuals. Condors reduced their use of marine-derived prey in recent compared with historical times from 33 ± 13% to less than 8 ± 3% respectively; however, they still breed close to the coast. The average distance between the coast and nests was 62.5 km, but some nests were located close to the sea (less than 5 km). Therefore, some birds must travel up to 86 km from nesting sites, crossing over the mountain range to find food. The worldwide reduction in marine mammal carcasses, especially whales, may have major consequences on the foraging ecology of scavengers, as well as on the flux of marine inputs within terrestrial ecosystems.

A Custom Approach for a Flexible, Real-Time and Reliable Software Defined Utility.

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) have enabled the evolution of traditional electric power distribution networks towards a new paradigm referred to as the smart grid. However, the different elements that compose the ICT plane of a smart grid are usually conceived as isolated systems that typically result in rigid hardware architectures, which are hard to interoperate, manage and adapt to new situations. In the recent years, software-defined systems that take advantage of software and high-speed data network infrastructures have emerged as a promising alternative to classic ad hoc approaches in terms of integration, automation, real-time reconfiguration and resource reusability. The purpose of this paper is to propose the usage of software-defined utilities (SDUs) to address the latent deployment and management limitations of smart grids. More specifically, the implementation of a smart grid's data storage and management system prototype by means of SDUs is introduced, which exhibits the feasibility of this alternative approach. This system features a hybrid cloud architecture able to meet the data storage requirements of electric utilities and adapt itself to their ever-evolving needs. Conducted experimentations endorse the feasibility of this solution and encourage practitioners to point their efforts in this direction.

Real-Time Distributed Architecture for Remote Acoustic Elderly Monitoring in Residential-Scale Ambient Assisted Living Scenarios.

Ambient Assisted Living (AAL) has become a powerful alternative to improving the life quality of elderly and partially dependent people in their own living environments. In this regard, tele-care and remote surveillance AAL applications have emerged as a hot research topic in this domain. These services aim to infer the patients' status by means of centralized architectures that collect data from a set of sensors deployed in their living environment. However, when the size of the scenario and number of patients to be monitored increase (e.g., residential areas, retirement homes), these systems typically struggle at processing all associated data and providing a reasonable output in real time. The purpose of this paper is to present a fog-inspired distributed architecture to collect, analyze and identify up to nine acoustic events that represent abnormal behavior or dangerous health conditions in large-scale scenarios. Specifically, the proposed platform collects data from a set of wireless acoustic sensors and runs an automatic two-stage audio event classification process to decide whether or not to trigger an alarm. Conducted experiments over a labeled dataset of 7116 s based on the priorities of the Fundació Ave Maria health experts have obtained an overall accuracy of 94.6%.

Does genetic structure reflect differences in non-breeding movements? A case study in small, highly mobile seabirds.

BACKGROUND: In seabirds, the extent of population genetic and phylogeographic structure varies extensively among species. Genetic structure is lacking in some species, but present in others despite the absence of obvious physical barriers (landmarks), suggesting that other mechanisms restrict gene flow. It has been proposed that the extent of genetic structure in seabirds is best explained by relative overlap in non-breeding distributions of birds from different populations. We used results from the analysis of microsatellite DNA variation and geolocation (tracking) data to test this hypothesis. We studied three small (130-200 g), very abundant, zooplanktivorous petrels (Procellariiformes, Aves), each sampled at two breeding populations that were widely separated (Atlantic and Indian Ocean sectors of the Southern Ocean) but differed in the degree of overlap in non-breeding distributions; the wintering areas of the two Antarctic prion (Pachyptila desolata) populations are separated by over 5000 km, whereas those of the blue petrels (Halobaena caerulea) and thin-billed prions (P. belcheri) show considerable overlap. Therefore, we expected the breeding populations of blue petrels and thin-billed prions to show high connectivity despite their geographical distance, and those of Antarctic prions to be genetically differentiated. RESULTS: Microsatellite (at 18 loci) and cytochrome b sequence data suggested a lack of genetic structure in all three species. We thus found no relationship between genetic and spatial structure (relative overlap in non-breeding distributions) in these pelagic seabirds. CONCLUSIONS: In line with other Southern Ocean taxa, geographic distance did not lead to genetic differences between widely spaced populations of Southern Ocean petrel species.

homeSound: Real-Time Audio Event Detection Based on High Performance Computing for Behaviour and Surveillance Remote Monitoring.

The consistent growth in human life expectancy during the recent years has driven governments and private organizations to increase the efforts in caring for the eldest segment of the population. These institutions have built hospitals and retirement homes that have been rapidly overfilled, making their associated maintenance and operating costs prohibitive. The latest advances in technology and communications envisage new ways to monitor those people with special needs at their own home, increasing their quality of life in a cost-affordable way. The purpose of this paper is to present an Ambient Assisted Living (AAL) platform able to analyze, identify, and detect specific acoustic events happening in daily life environments, which enables the medic staff to remotely track the status of every patient in real-time. Additionally, this tele-care proposal is validated through a proof-of-concept experiment that takes benefit of the capabilities of the NVIDIA Graphical Processing Unit running on a Jetson TK1 board to locally detect acoustic events. Conducted experiments demonstrate the feasibility of this approach by reaching an overall accuracy of 82% when identifying a set of 14 indoor environment events related to the domestic surveillance and patients' behaviour monitoring field. Obtained results encourage practitioners to keep working in this direction, and enable health care providers to remotely track the status of their patients in real-time with non-invasive methods.

Population genetic structure and long-distance dispersal of a recently expanding migratory bird.

Long-distance dispersal events and their derivable increases of genetic diversity have been highlighted as important ecological and evolutionary determinants that improve performances of range-expanding species. In the context of global environmental change, specific dispersal strategies have to be understood and foreseen if we like to prevent general biodiversity impoverishment or the spread of allochthonous diseases. We explored the genetic structure and potential population mixing on the recently range-expanding European bee-eater Merops apiaster. In addition, the species is suspected of harbouring and disseminating the most relevant disease for bees and apiculture, Nosema microsporidia. In agreement with complementary ringing recovery data and morphometric measurements, genetic results on two mitochondrial genes and 12 microsatellites showed a reasonably well-structured population partitioning along its breeding distribution. Microsatellite results indicated that not only did a few birds recently disperse long distance during their return migrations and change their natal breeding areas, but also that a group of allochthonous birds together founded a new colony. Although we did not provide evidence on the direct implication of birds in the widespread of Nosema parasites, our finding on the long-distance dispersal of bird flocks between remote breeding colonies adds concern about the role of European bee-eaters in the spread of such disease at a large, inter-continental scale.

Sources of persistent organic pollutants and their physiological effects on opportunistic urban gulls.

Urbanization is associated with drastic shifts in biodiversity. While some species thrive in urban areas, the impact of inhabiting these human-altered environments on organism physiology remains understudied. We investigated how exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) affects the physiology of yellow-legged gulls (Larus michahellis) inhabiting a densely populated, industrialized city. We analyzed blood samples from 50 gulls (20 immatures and 30 adults) and assessed 27 physiological parameters and biomarkers related to xenobiotic protection, health, and feeding habits in these same individuals. We also tracked the movements of 25 gulls (15 immatures and 10 adults) to identify potential sources of persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Both adult and immature gulls primarily inhabited urban areas, followed by marine habitats. Immature gulls spent more time in freshwater, landfills, and agricultural areas. Bioaccumulated ΣPCB (median = 92.7 ng g-1 ww, 1.86-592) and ΣPBDE (median = 1.44 ng g-1 ww, 0.022-9.58) showed no significant differences between age and sex groups. Notably, immature males exhibited the highest correlations with POP concentrations, particularly with the activity of carboxylesterases (CEs), suggesting a higher sensitivity than adults. These findings highlight the potential of plasmatic CEs in immature yellow-legged gulls as effective tracers of POPs exposure and effects, offering insights into the anthropogenic impacts on urban biodiversity.

A spatial analysis of urban gulls contribution to the potential spread of zoonotic and antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Wildlife human interactions within cities are becoming more common with consequences for pathogen transmission and human health. Large gulls are opportunistic feeders, adapted to coexist with humans in urban environments, and are potential vectors for spread and transmission of pathogens, including antimicrobial-resistant bacteria. We investigated the potential role that urban gulls play in the spread and dispersal of these bacteria. We analysed 129 faecal swabs from yellow-legged gulls (Larus michahellis) of different ages (56 adults and 73 immatures) during the breeding period from three years in the highly populated city of Barcelona (northeastern Spain). Thirteen individuals tested positive for the pathogenic bacteria (Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Campylobacter jejuni), including antibiotic-resistant strains. We modelled the potential spatial spread of pathogens using the GPS trajectories of 58 yellow-legged gulls (23 adults, 35 immature individuals), which included the thirteen individuals that tested positive for pathogenic bacteria. By overlapping the spatially explicit pathogen dispersal maps with the distribution of urban installations sensitive at risk of possible pathogen spillover (e.g. elder and medical centres, markets, food industries, kindergartens, or public water sources), we identified potential areas at risk of pathogen spillover. Pathogens may be potentially spread to municipalities beyond Barcelona city borders. The results revealed that immature gulls dispersed pathogens over larger areas than adults (maximum dispersal distances of 167 km versus 53.2 km, respectively). Recreational urban water sources were the most sensitive habitats visited by GPS-tagged gulls that tested positive, followed by schools. Combining GPS movement data with pathogen analytics allows spatially explicit maps to be generated using a One Health approach that can help urban and public health management within large cities, such as Barcelona, and identify areas used by humans that are sensitive to pathogen spillover from gulls.

Indicators to assess temporal variability in marine connectivity processes: A semi-theoretical approach.

Oceanographic connectivity in an effective network of protected areas is crucial for restoring and stabilising marine populations. However, temporal variability in connectivity is rarely considered as a criterion in designing and evaluating marine conservation planning. In this study, indicators were defined to characterise the temporal variability in occurrence, flux, and frequency of connectivity in a northwestern Mediterranean Sea area. Indicators were tested on semi-theoretically-estimated connections provided by the runs of a passive particle transport model in a climatological year and in three years between 2006-2020, showing large deviation from the climatological year. The indicators allowed comparing the temporal variability in connectivity of four zones, highlighted differences in connectivity due to their locations and the mesoscale hydrodynamics, and identified areas that require further investigation. The three indicators also showed that the temporal variability in connectivity was influenced by the duration and depth of particle transport, although no consistent pattern was observed in the indicator variations of the compared zones. Provided that specific objectives will be given when parameterising transport models (i.e., selection of focus species and time period), indicators of temporal variability in connectivity have potential to support spatial conservation planning, prioritise the protection of marine resources, and measure the effectiveness of Marine Protected Areas, in line with a long-term vision of ocean management.