A National Description of Treatment among United States Children and Adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.

OBJECTIVE: To characterize lifetime and current rates of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) treatments among US children and adolescents with current ADHD and describe the association of these treatments with demographic and clinical factors. STUDY DESIGN: Data are from the 2014 National Survey of the Diagnosis and Treatment of ADHD and Tourette Syndrome, a follow-back survey of parents from the 2011-2012 National Survey of Children's Health. Weighted analyses focused on receipt of ADHD treatment among children aged 4-17 years with current ADHD (n = 2495) by 4 treatment types: medication, school supports, psychosocial interventions, and alternative treatments. RESULTS: Medication and school supports were the most common treatments received, with two-thirds of children and adolescents with ADHD currently receiving each treatment. Social skills training was the most common psychosocial treatment ever received (39%), followed by parent training (31%), peer intervention (30%), and cognitive behavioral therapy (20%). Among alternative treatments, 9% were currently taking dietary supplements, and 11% had ever received neurofeedback. Most children (67%) had received at least 2 of the following: current medication treatment, current school supports, or lifetime psychosocial treatment; 7% had received none of these 3 treatment types. CONCLUSIONS: A majority of school-aged children and adolescents with ADHD received medication treatment and school supports, whereas fewer received recommended psychosocial interventions. Efforts to increase access to psychosocial treatments may help close gaps in service use by groups currently less likely to receive treatment, which is important to ensure that the millions of school-aged US children diagnosed with ADHD receive quality treatment.

Vital Signs: Trends in Reported Vectorborne Disease Cases - United States and Territories, 2004-2016.

INTRODUCTION: Vectorborne diseases are major causes of death and illness worldwide. In the United States, the most common vectorborne pathogens are transmitted by ticks or mosquitoes, including those causing Lyme disease; Rocky Mountain spotted fever; and West Nile, dengue, and Zika virus diseases. This report examines trends in occurrence of nationally reportable vectorborne diseases during 2004-2016. METHODS: Data reported to the National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System for 16 notifiable vectorborne diseases during 2004-2016 were analyzed; findings were tabulated by disease, vector type, location, and year. RESULTS: A total 642,602 cases were reported. The number of annual reports of tickborne bacterial and protozoan diseases more than doubled during this period, from >22,000 in 2004 to >48,000 in 2016. Lyme disease accounted for 82% of all tickborne disease reports during 2004-2016. The occurrence of mosquitoborne diseases was marked by virus epidemics. Transmission in Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and American Samoa accounted for most reports of dengue, chikungunya, and Zika virus diseases; West Nile virus was endemic, and periodically epidemic, in the continental United States. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC HEALTH PRACTICE: Vectorborne diseases are a large and growing public health problem in the United States, characterized by geographic specificity and frequent pathogen emergence and introduction. Differences in distribution and transmission dynamics of tickborne and mosquitoborne diseases are often rooted in biologic differences of the vectors. To effectively reduce transmission and respond to outbreaks will require major national improvement of surveillance, diagnostics, reporting, and vector control, as well as new tools, including vaccines.

Interpreting the Prevalence of Mental Disorders in Children: Tribulation and Triangulation.

Knowledge on the prevalence of mental disorders among children informs the work of many health care providers, public health researchers, educators, and policy makers, and any single data source and study methodology can provide valuable insight. However, it is only after prevalence estimates from complementary studies are considered together that distinctions can be made to more deeply inform an assessment of community needs, including diagnosed prevalence versus underlying prevalence, differences between insured and uninsured populations, and how estimates change over time. National surveys, community-based studies, and administrative claims data each provide a different type of information that builds broad understanding. This article presents some of the overarching complexities of the issue, discusses strengths and weaknesses of some common data sources and methodologies used to generate epidemiological estimates, and describes ways in which these data sources complement one another and contribute to a better understanding of the prevalence of pediatric mental disorders.

Vital Signs: National and State-Specific Patterns of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Treatment Among Insured Children Aged 2-5 Years - United States, 2008-2014.

BACKGROUND: Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is associated with adverse outcomes and elevated societal costs. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) 2011 guidelines recommend "behavior therapy" over medication as first-line treatment for children aged 4-5 years with ADHD; these recommendations are consistent with current guidelines from the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry for younger children. CDC analyzed claims data to assess national and state-level ADHD treatment patterns among young children. METHODS: CDC compared Medicaid and employer-sponsored insurance (ESI) claims for "psychological services" (the procedure code category that includes behavior therapy) and ADHD medication among children aged 2-5 years receiving clinical care for ADHD, using the MarketScan commercial database (2008-2014) and Medicaid (2008-2011) data. Among children with ESI, ADHD indicators were compared during periods preceding and following the 2011 AAP guidelines. RESULTS: In both Medicaid and ESI populations, the percentage of children aged 2-5 years receiving clinical care for ADHD increased over time; however, during 2008-2011, the percentage of Medicaid beneficiaries receiving clinical care was double that of ESI beneficiaries. Although state percentages varied, overall nationally no more than 55% of children with ADHD received psychological services annually, regardless of insurance type, whereas approximately three fourths received medication. Among children with ESI, the percentage receiving psychological services following release of the guidelines decreased significantly by 5%, from 44% in 2011 to 42% in 2014; the change in medication treatment rates (77% in 2011 compared with 76% in 2014) was not significant. CONCLUSIONS AND COMMENTS: Among insured children aged 2-5 years receiving clinical care for ADHD, medication treatment was more common than receipt of recommended first-line treatment with psychological services. Among children with ADHD who had ESI, receipt of psychological services did not increase after release of the 2011 guidelines. Scaling up evidence-based behavior therapy might lead to increased delivery of effective ADHD management without the side effects of ADHD medications.

Treatment of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder among Children with Special Health Care Needs.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the parent-reported prevalence of treatments for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) among a national sample of children with special health care needs (CSHCN), and assess the alignment of ADHD treatment with current American Academy of Pediatrics guidelines. STUDY DESIGN: Parent-reported data from the 2009-2010 National Survey of Children with Special Health Care Needs allowed for weighted national and state-based prevalence estimates of medication, behavioral therapy, and dietary supplement use for ADHD treatment among CSHCN aged 4-17 years with current ADHD. National estimates were compared across demographic groups, ADHD severity, and comorbidities. Medication treatment by drug class was described. RESULTS: Of CSHCN with current ADHD, 74.0% had received medication treatment in the past week, 44.0% had received behavioral therapy in the past year, and 10.2% used dietary supplements for ADHD in the past year. Overall, 87.3% had received past week medication treatment or past year behavioral therapy (both, 30.7%; neither, 12.7%). Among preschool-aged CSHCN with ADHD, 25.4% received medication treatment alone, 31.9% received behavioral therapy alone, 21.2% received both treatments, and 21.4% received neither treatment. Central nervous system stimulants were the most common medication class (84.8%) among CSHCN with ADHD, followed by the selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor atomoxetine (8.4%). CONCLUSION: These estimates provide a benchmark of clinical practice for the period directly preceding issuance of the American Academy of Pediatrics' 2011 ADHD guidelines. Most children with ADHD received medication treatment or behavioral therapy; just under one-third received both. Multimodal treatment was most common for CSHCN with severe ADHD and those with comorbidities. Approximately one-half of preschoolers received behavioral therapy, the recommended first-line treatment for this age group.

Vital signs: disability and physical activity--United States, 2009-2012.

BACKGROUND: Adults with disabilities are less active and have higher rates of chronic disease than the general population. Given the health benefits of physical activity, understanding physical activity, its relationship with chronic disease, and health professional recommendations for physical activity among young to middle-age adults with disabilities could help increase the effectiveness of health promotion efforts. METHODS: Data from the 2009-2012 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) were used to estimate the prevalence of, and association between, aerobic physical activity (inactive, insufficiently active, or active) and chronic diseases (heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and cancer) among adults aged 18-64 years by disability status and type (hearing, vision, cognitive, and mobility). The prevalence of, and association between, receiving a health professional recommendation for physical activity and level of aerobic physical activity was assessed using 2010 data. RESULTS: Overall, 11.6% of U.S. adults aged 18-64 years reported a disability, with estimates for disability type ranging from 1.7% (vision) to 5.8% (mobility). Compared with adults without disabilities, inactivity was more prevalent among adults with any disability (47.1% versus 26.1%) and for adults with each type of disability. Inactive adults with disabilities were 50% more likely to report one or more chronic diseases than those who were physically active. Approximately 44% of adults with disabilities received a recommendation from a health professional for physical activity in the past 12 months. CONCLUSIONS: Almost half of adults with disabilities are physically inactive and are more likely to have a chronic disease. Among adults with disabilities who visited a health professional in the past 12 months, the majority (56%) did not receive a recommendation for physical activity. IMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC HEALTH: These data highlight the need for increased physical activity among persons with disabilities, which might require support across societal sectors, including government and health care.

Prevalence and impact of unhealthy weight in a national sample of US adolescents with autism and other learning and behavioral disabilities.

We estimated the prevalence of obesity, overweight, and underweight among US adolescents with and without autism and other learning and behavioral developmental disabilities (DDs) and assessed the health consequences of obesity among adolescents with DDs. From the 2008 to 2010 National Health Interview Survey, we selected 9,619 adolescents ages 12-17 years. Parent respondents reported weight, height, presence of DDs and health conditions. We calculated body mass index (BMI) and defined obesity, overweight, and underweight as ≥95th, ≥85th to <95th, and <5th percentiles, respectively, using established criteria. We created mutually-exclusive DD subgroups using the following order of precedence: autism; intellectual disability; attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder; learning disorder/other developmental delay. We compared BMI outcomes among adolescents in each DD group versus adolescents without DDs using multivariable logistic regression. Socio-demographic factors and birthweight were included as confounders. Estimates were weighted to reflect the US population. Both obesity and underweight prevalences were higher among adolescents with than without DDs [adjusted prevalence ratios (aPR) 1.5 (1.25-1.75) and 1.5 (1.01-2.20), respectively]. Obesity was elevated among adolescents with all DD types, and was highest among the autism subgroup [aPR 2.1 (1.44-3.16)]. Adolescents with either a DD or obesity had higher prevalences of common respiratory, gastrointestinal, dermatological and neurological conditions/symptoms than nonobese adolescents without DDs. Adolescents with both DDs and obesity had the highest estimates for most conditions. Obesity is high among adolescents with autism and other DDs and poses added chronic health risks. Obesity prevention and management approaches for this vulnerable population subgroup need further consideration.

Behavioral and socioemotional outcomes through age 5 years of the legacy for children public health approach to improving developmental outcomes among children born into poverty.

OBJECTIVES: We evaluated Legacy for Children, a public health strategy to improve child health and development among low-income families. METHODS: Mothers were recruited prenatally or at the birth of a child to participate in Legacy parenting groups for 3 to 5 years. A set of 2 randomized trials in Miami, Florida, and Los Angeles, California, between 2001 and 2009 assessed 574 mother-child pairs when the children were 6, 12, 24, 36, 48, and 60 months old. Intent-to-treat analyses from 12 to 60 months compared groups on child behavioral and socioemotional outcomes. RESULTS: Children of mothers in the intervention group were at lower risk for behavioral concerns at 24 months and socioemotional problems at 48 months in Miami, and lower risk for hyperactive behavior at 60 months in Los Angeles. Longitudinal analyses indicated that children of intervention mothers in Miami were at lower risk for behavior problems from 24 to 60 months of age. CONCLUSIONS: Randomized controlled trials documented effectiveness of the Legacy model over time while allowing for implementation adaptations by 2 different sites. Broadly disseminable, parent-focused prevention models such as Legacy have potential for public health impact. These investments in prevention might reduce the need for later intervention strategies.

State-based and demographic variation in parent-reported medication rates for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, 2007-2008.

Medication is the most effective treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a common neurobehavioral disorder of childhood. We used data from the 2007-2008 National Survey of Children's Health to calculate weighted estimates of parent-reported ADHD and medication treatment among US children aged 4 to 17 years, by state and sex-stratified age. State-based rates of ADHD medication treatment ranged from 33% in Nevada to 79% in Mississippi; rates of medicated ADHD were higher among boys than girls at every age. State-based investigations of ADHD medication treatment factors are needed, and our findings may inform these public health efforts.

Legacy for ChildrenTM: a pair of randomized controlled trials of a public health model to improve developmental outcomes among children in poverty.

BACKGROUND: One in five Americans under age 18 lives in a family below the Federal poverty threshold. These more than 15 million children are at increased risk of a wide variety of adverse long-term health and developmental outcomes. The early years of life are critical to short- and long-term health and well-being. The Legacy for ChildrenTM model was developed in response to this need and marries the perspectives of epidemiology and public health to developmental psychology theory in order to better address the needs of children at environmental risk for poor developmental outcomes. METHODS/DESIGN: The Legacy for ChildrenTM group-based parenting intervention model was evaluated as a pair of randomized controlled trials among low-income families in Miami and Los Angeles. The study was designed to allow for site-stratified analysis in order to evaluate each model implementation separately. Evaluation domains include comprehensive assessments of family, maternal, and child characteristics, process outcomes, and prospective programmatic cost. Data collection began prenatally or at birth and continues into school-age. DISCUSSION: The societal costs of poor developmental outcomes are substantial. A concerted effort from multiple sectors and disciplines, including public health, is necessary to address these societal concerns. Legacy uses a public health model to engage parents and promote overall child well-being in families in poverty through rigorous evaluation methodologies and evidence-based intervention strategies. This study collects rich and modular information on maternal and child outcomes, process, and cost that will enable a detailed understanding of how Legacy works, how it can be refined and improved, and how it can be translated and disseminated. Taken together, these results will inform public policy and help to address issues of health disparities among at-risk populations. TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT00164697.

SARS-CoV-2 infection risk among vaccinated and unvaccinated household members during the Alpha variant surge - Denver, Colorado, and San Diego, California, January-April 2021.

BACKGROUND: COVID-19 vaccination reduces SARS-CoV-2 infection and transmission. However, evidence is emerging on the degree of protection across variants and in high-transmission settings. To better understand the protection afforded by vaccination specifically in a high-transmission setting, we examined household transmission of SARS-CoV-2 during a period of high community incidence with predominant SARS-CoV-2 B.1.1.7 (Alpha) variant, among vaccinated and unvaccinated contacts. METHODS: We conducted a household transmission investigation in San Diego County, California, and Denver, Colorado, during January-April 2021. Households were enrolled if they had at least one person with documented SARS-CoV-2 infection. We collected nasopharyngeal swabs, blood, demographic information, and vaccination history from all consenting household members. We compared infection risks (IRs), RT-PCR cycle threshold values, SARS-CoV-2 culture results, and antibody statuses among vaccinated and unvaccinated household contacts. RESULTS: We enrolled 493 individuals from 138 households. The SARS-CoV-2 variant was identified from 121/138 households (88%). The most common variants were Alpha (75/121, 62%) and Epsilon (19/121, 16%). There were no households with discordant lineages among household members. One fully vaccinated secondary case was symptomatic (13%); the other 5 were asymptomatic (87%). Among unvaccinated secondary cases, 105/108 (97%) were symptomatic. Among 127 households with a single primary case, the IR for household contacts was 45% (146/322; 95% Confidence Interval [CI] 40-51%). The observed IR was higher in unvaccinated (130/257, 49%, 95% CI 45-57%) than fully vaccinated contacts (6/26, 23%, 95% CI 11-42%). A lower proportion of households with a fully vaccinated primary case had secondary cases (1/5, 20%) than households with an unvaccinated primary case (66/108, 62%). CONCLUSIONS: Although SARS-CoV-2 infections in vaccinated household contacts were reported in this high transmission setting, full vaccination protected against SARS-CoV-2 infection. These findings further support the protective effect of COVID-19 vaccination and highlight the need for ongoing vaccination among eligible persons.

Highly variable population-based prevalence rates of unilateral hearing loss after the application of common case definitions.

OBJECTIVES: This study shows how population-based estimates of the prevalence of unilateral hearing loss (UHL) in children aged 6 to 19 yrs can differ considerably with various applications of commonly accepted case definitions. It also examines demographic variables and risk factors related to UHL. DESIGN: The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, conducted from 1988 to 1994, is a national population-based, cross-sectional survey. This study examined results of audiometric testing at 0.5 to 8 kHz and demographic data from in-person examination interviews. Three definitions of UHL were used: (1) 0.5, 1, and 2 kHz > or = 15 dB pure-tone average (PTA); (2) 0.5, 1, 2, and 4 kHz > or = 15 dB PTA; and (3) 0.5, 1, and 2 kHz > or = 20 dB or PTA >25 dB at two or more frequencies above 2 kHz (3, 4, 6, and 8 kHz). Case definitions 2 and 3 are not merely subsets of case definition 1. Some overlap exists between the groups, but each case definition classifies a proportion of children who fall uniquely under that case definition. Inclusion of participants based on tympanometry results (test of middle ear function) was also examined as were demographic characteristics and risk factors associated with UHL. RESULTS: Overall, the weighted proportion of children with UHL using case definition 1 was 6.3% (approximately 3,213,000 children nationally); using case definition 2, it was 5.8% (approximately 2,958,000 nationally); using case definition 3, it was 3.0% (approximately 1,530,000 nationally). For all three case definitions, children who failed tympanometry were at higher risk for UHL than children who passed. For case definition 2, children from rural areas were at higher risk for UHL than were children from urban areas. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that different applications of well-accepted case definitions of UHL can influence population-based prevalence estimates, in this study by as much as a factor of 2. These findings highlight the importance of controlling for tympanometry status as a risk factor in such estimates. Which demographic characteristics and risk factors are significantly associated with hearing loss seem to vary depending on the case definition. These findings have implications for the interpretation of prevalence rates and risk factors in the literature on hearing loss in general. Prevalence rate estimates require careful consideration of the case definition of hearing loss, tympanometry status, and demographic characteristics.

ADHD and Psychiatric Comorbidity: Functional Outcomes in a School-Based Sample of Children.

Objective: Investigate the prevalence and impact of psychiatric comorbidities in community-based samples of schoolchildren with/without ADHD. Method: Teachers and parents screened children in South Carolina (SC; n = 4,604) and Oklahoma (OK; n = 12,626) for ADHD. Parents of high-screen and selected low-screen children received diagnostic interviews (SC: n = 479; OK: n = 577). Results: Psychiatric disorders were increased among children with ADHD and were associated with low academic performance. Conduct disorder/oppositional defiant disorder (CD/ODD) were associated with grade retention (ODD/CD + ADHD: odds ratio [OR] = 3.0; confidence interval [CI] = [1.5, 5.9]; ODD/CD without ADHD: OR = 4.0; CI = [1.7, 9.7]). School discipline/police involvement was associated with ADHD alone (OR = 3.2; CI = [1.5, 6.8]), ADHD + CD/ODD (OR = 14.1, CI = [7.3, 27.1]), ADHD + anxiety/depression (OR = 4.8, CI = [1.6, 14.8]), and CD/ODD alone (OR = 2.8, CI = [1.2, 6.4]). Children with ADHD + anxiety/depression had tenfold risk for poor academic performance (OR = 10.8; CI = [2.4, 49.1]) compared to children with ADHD alone. This should be interpreted with caution due to the wide confidence interval. Conclusion: Most children with ADHD have psychiatric comorbidities, which worsens functional outcomes. The pattern of outcomes varies by type of comorbidity.

ADHD Medication Use During Pregnancy and Risk for Selected Birth Defects: National Birth Defects Prevention Study, 1998-2011.

Objective: The objective of this study was to examine the prevalence of, and maternal characteristics associated with, ADHD medication use before and during pregnancy, and associations between early pregnancy ADHD medication use and risk for 12 selected birth defects. Method: We used data from the National Birth Defects Prevention Study (1998-2011), a U.S. population-based case-control study examining risk factors for major structural birth defects. Results: There was an increase in ADHD medication use from 1998-1999 (0.2%) to 2010-2011 (0.5%; p < .001). Early pregnancy ADHD medication use was more commonly reported by mothers of infants/fetuses with gastroschisis (crude odds ratio [cOR]: 2.9, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [1.2, 6.9]), omphalocele (cOR: 4.0, 95% CI = [1.2, 13.6]), and transverse limb deficiency (cOR: 3.3, 95% CI = [1.1, 9.6]). Conclusion: ADHD medication use before and during pregnancy was rare, but the prevalence of use has increased over time. In this analysis, early pregnancy ADHD medication use was associated with three of 12 selected birth defects.

The Need for a National Strategy to Address Vector-Borne Disease Threats in the United States.

Vector-borne diseases (VBDs) cause significant morbidity and mortality each year in the United States. Over the last 14 yr, over 700,000 cases of diseases carried by ticks, mosquitoes, and fleas have been reported from U.S. states and territories to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The number of reported cases has been increasing annually with two major trends: a steady increase in tick-borne diseases and increasing intermittent outbreaks of mosquito-borne arboviruses. The factors that are driving VBD introduction and emergence vary among diseases but are not likely to disappear, indicating that current trends will continue and probably worsen in the absence of effective prevention and control tools and implementation capacity. There are a number of challenges to preventing VBDs, including the lack of vaccines and effective vector control tools, insecticide resistance, and eroding technical capacities in public health entomology at federal, state, and local levels. For these reasons, a national strategy is needed to address VBD threats and to reverse the alarming trend in morbidity and mortality associated with these diseases.

Combatting the Increasing Threat of Vector-Borne Disease in the United States with a National Vector-Borne Disease Prevention and Control System.

Reported cases of vector-borne diseases in the United States have more than tripled since 2004, characterized by steadily increasing incidence of tick-borne diseases and sporadic outbreaks of domestic and invasive mosquito-borne diseases. An effective public health response to these trends relies on public health surveillance and laboratory systems, proven prevention and mitigation measures, scalable capacity to implement these measures, sensitive and specific diagnostics, and effective therapeutics. However, significant obstacles hinder successful implementation of these public health strategies. The recent emergence of Haemaphysalis longicornis, the first invasive tick to emerge in the United States in approximately 80 years, serves as the most recent example of the need for a coordinated public health response. Addressing the dual needs for innovation and discovery and for building state and local capacities may overcome current challenges in vector-borne disease prevention and control, but will require coordination across a national network of collaborators operating under a national strategy. Such an effort should reduce the impact of emerging vectors and could reverse the increasing trend of vector-borne disease incidence and associated morbidity and mortality.

Student-Perceived School Climate Is Associated With ADHD Medication Treatment Among Adolescents in Medicaid.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to evaluate the relationship between school climate and ADHD medication treatment among adolescents in Medicaid in Georgia. METHOD: School climate and Medicaid claims data were aggregated for 159 GA counties. County-level school climate percentile and medicated ADHD prevalence were calculated. The t tests and regression models evaluated the relationship between school climate, medicated ADHD, and demographics, weighted by county population. Poorer 2008 school climate (<25th percentile) was regressed on 2011 medicated ADHD prevalence, controlling for potential confounders. RESULTS: The prevalence of medicated ADHD was 7.8% among Medicaid-enrolled GA adolescents. The average county-level prevalence of medicated ADHD was 10.0% ( SD = 2.9%). Poorer school climate was associated with lower rates of medicated ADHD ( p < .0001); along with demographics, these factors accounted for 50% of the county variation in medicated ADHD. CONCLUSION: School climate is associated with medicated ADHD among adolescents in Medicaid. Additional research may reveal whether high medicated ADHD may reflect a lack of access to non-pharmacological therapies in some communities.

Predictors of Receipt of School Services in a National Sample of Youth With ADHD.

Objective: The objective of the study is to describe the extent to which students with ADHD received school-based intervention services and identify demographic, diagnostic, and impairment-related variables that are associated with service receipt in a large, nationally drawn sample. Method: Parent-reported data were obtained for 2,495 children with ADHD aged 4 to 17 years from the National Survey of the Diagnosis and Treatment of ADHD and Tourette Syndrome (NS-DATA). Results: The majority (69.3%) of students with ADHD currently receive one or more school services. Educational support (62.3%) was nearly twice as prevalent as classroom behavior management (32.0%). More than 3 times as many students with ADHD had an individualized education program (IEP; 42.9%) as a Section 504 plan (13.6%). Conclusion: At least one in five students with ADHD do not receive school services despite experiencing significant academic and social impairment, a gap that is particularly evident for adolescents and youth from non-English-speaking and/or lower income families.

The Legacy for Children™ Randomized Control Trial: Effects on Cognition Through Third Grade for Young Children Experiencing Poverty.

OBJECTIVE: In an effort to promote the health and developmental outcomes of children born into poverty, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) conceptualized and designed the Legacy for Children™ (Legacy) public health prevention model. This article examines the impact of Legacy on children's cognitive and language development (intelligence quotient [IQ], achievement, language skills, and early reading skills) using both standardized assessments and parent-reported indictors through third grade. METHODS: Data were collected from 2001 to 2014 from 541 mother-child dyads who were recruited into the 2 concurrent randomized controlled trials of Legacy in Miami and Los Angels. Cognitive and/or language outcomes of children were assessed annually from age 2 to 5 years as well as during a follow-up visit in the third grade. RESULTS: Children experiencing Legacy at the Los Angeles site had significantly higher IQ and achievement scores at 2 and 6 years postintervention, equivalent to approximately one-third of an SD (4 IQ points). IQ results persisted over time, and the difference between intervention and comparison groups on achievement scores widened. There were no significant differences in cognitive outcomes in the Miami sample. There were no significant differences in language outcomes for either site. CONCLUSION: Legacy shows evidence of effectiveness as an intervention to prevent cognitive delays among children living in poverty. The mixed findings across sites may not only reflect the impact of heterogeneous risk profiles noted by other intervention research programs but also warrant additional study.