Recognition and inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 by humoral innate immunity pattern recognition molecules.

The humoral arm of innate immunity includes diverse molecules with antibody-like functions, some of which serve as disease severity biomarkers in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The present study was designed to conduct a systematic investigation of the interaction of human humoral fluid-phase pattern recognition molecules (PRMs) with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Of 12 PRMs tested, the long pentraxin 3 (PTX3) and mannose-binding lectin (MBL) bound the viral nucleocapsid and spike proteins, respectively. MBL bound trimeric spike protein, including that of variants of concern (VoC), in a glycan-dependent manner and inhibited SARS-CoV-2 in three in vitro models. Moreover, after binding to spike protein, MBL activated the lectin pathway of complement activation. Based on retention of glycosylation sites and modeling, MBL was predicted to recognize the Omicron VoC. Genetic polymorphisms at the MBL2 locus were associated with disease severity. These results suggest that selected humoral fluid-phase PRMs can play an important role in resistance to, and pathogenesis of, COVID-19, a finding with translational implications.

Distinct Responses of Cystic Fibrosis Epithelial Cells to SARS-CoV-2 and Influenza A Virus.

The COVID-19 pandemic has underscored the impact of viral infections on individuals with cystic fibrosis (CF). Initial observations suggested lower COVID-19 rates among CF populations; however, subsequent clinical data have presented a more complex scenario. This study aimed to investigate how bronchial epithelial cells from CF and non-CF individuals, including various CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) mutations, respond to in vitro infection with SARS-CoV-2 variants and SARS-CoV. Comparisons with the Influenza A virus (IAV) were included based on evidence that CF patients experience heightened morbidity from IAV infection. Our findings showed that CF epithelial cells exhibited reduced replication of SARS-CoV-2, regardless of the type of CFTR mutation or SARS-CoV-2 variant, as well as the original 2003 SARS-Cove. In contrast, these cells displayed more efficient IAV replication compared to non-CF cells. Interestingly, the reduced susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 in CF was not linked to the expression of angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor nor to CFTR dysfunction, as pharmacological treatments to restore CFTR function did not normalize the viral response. Both SARS-CoV-2 infection and CFTR function influenced the levels of certain cytokines and chemokines, although these effects were not correlated. Overall, this study reveals a unique viral response in CF epithelial cells, characterized by reduced replication for some viruses like SARS-CoV-2, while showing increased susceptibility to others such as IAV. This research offers a new perspective on CF and viral interactions, emphasizing the need for further investigation into the mechanisms underlying these differences. This article is open access and distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial No Derivatives License 4.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Investigation of CFTR Function in Human Nasal Epithelial Cells Informs Personalized Medicine.

We broaden the clinical versatility of human nasal epithelial (HNE) cells. HNEs were isolated from 10 participants harboring cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) variants: 9 with rare variants (Q359R [n = 2], G480S, R334W [n = 5], and R560T) and 1 harboring R117H;7T;TG10/5T;TG12. Cultures were differentiated at the air-liquid interface. CFTR function was measured in Ussing chambers at three conditions: baseline, ivacaftor, and elexacaftor + tezacaftor + ivacaftor (ETI). Four participants initiated modulators. Q359R HNEs had 5.4% (% wild-type) baseline CFTR function and 25.5% with ivacaftor. With therapy, sweat [Cl-] decreased and symptoms resolved. G480S HNEs had 4.1% baseline and 32.1% CFTR function with ETI. Clinically, forced expiratory volume in 1 second increased and sweat [Cl-] decreased (119 to 46 mmol/L) with ETI. In vitro cultures derived from 5 participants harboring R334W showed a moderate increase in CFTR function with exposure to modulators. For one of these participants, ETI was begun in vivo; symptoms and forced expiratory volume in 1 second improved. The c.1679G>C (R560T) HNEs had less than 4% baseline CFTR function and no modulator response. RNA analysis confirmed that c.1679G>C completely missplices. A symptomatic patient harboring R117H;7T;TG10/5T;TG12 exhibited reduced CFTR function (17.5%) in HNEs, facilitating a diagnosis of mild CF. HNEs responded to modulators (ivacaftor: 32.8%, ETI: 55.5%), and, since beginning therapy, lung function improved. We reaffirm HNE use for guiding therapeutic approaches, inform predictions on modulator response (e.g., R334W), and closely assess variants that affect splicing (e.g., c.1679G>C). Notably, functional studies in HNEs harboring R117H;7T;TG10/5T;TG12 facilitated a diagnosis of mild CF, suggesting the use for HNE functional studies as a clinical diagnostic test.

SUMOylation Inhibition Enhances Protein Transcription under CMV Promoter: A Lesson from a Study with the F508del-CFTR Mutant.

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disorder caused by mutations in the gene encoding the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), a selective anion channel expressed in the epithelium of various organs. The most frequent mutation is F508del. This mutation leads to a misfolded CFTR protein quickly degraded via ubiquitination in the endoplasmic reticulum. Although preventing ubiquitination stabilizes the protein, functionality is not restored due to impaired plasma membrane transport. However, inhibiting the ubiquitination process can improve the effectiveness of correctors which act as chemical chaperones, facilitating F508del CFTR trafficking to the plasma membrane. Previous studies indicate a crosstalk between SUMOylation and ubiquitination in the regulation of CFTR. In this study, we investigated the potential of inhibiting SUMOylation to increase the effects of correctors and enhance the rescue of the F508del mutant across various cell models. In the widely used CFBE41o-cell line expressing F508del-CFTR, inhibiting SUMOylation substantially boosted F508del expression, thereby increasing the efficacy of correctors. Interestingly, this outcome did not result from enhanced stability of the mutant channel, but rather from augmented cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter-mediated gene expression of F508del-CFTR. Notably, CFTR regulated by endogenous promoters in multiple cell lines or patient cells was not influenced by SUMOylation inhibitors.

Targeting the E1 ubiquitin-activating enzyme (UBA1) improves elexacaftor/tezacaftor/ivacaftor efficacy towards F508del and rare misfolded CFTR mutants.

The advent of Trikafta (Kaftrio in Europe) (a triple-combination therapy based on two correctors-elexacaftor/tezacaftor-and the potentiator ivacaftor) has represented a revolution for the treatment of patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) carrying the most common misfolding mutation, F508del-CFTR. This therapy has proved to be of great efficacy in people homozygous for F508del-CFTR and is also useful in individuals with a single F508del allele. Nevertheless, the efficacy of this therapy needs to be improved, especially in light of the extent of its use in patients with rare class II CFTR mutations. Using CFBE41o- cells expressing F508del-CFTR, we provide mechanistic evidence that targeting the E1 ubiquitin-activating enzyme (UBA1) by TAK-243, a small molecule in clinical trials for other diseases, boosts the rescue of F508del-CFTR induced by CFTR correctors. Moreover, TAK-243 significantly increases the F508del-CFTR short-circuit current induced by elexacaftor/tezacaftor/ivacaftor in differentiated human primary airway epithelial cells, a gold standard for the pre-clinical evaluation of patients' responsiveness to pharmacological treatments. This new combinatory approach also leads to an improvement in CFTR conductance on cells expressing other rare CF-causing mutations, including N1303K, for which Trikafta is not approved. These findings show that Trikafta therapy can be improved by the addition of a drug targeting the misfolding detection machinery at the beginning of the ubiquitination cascade and may pave the way for an extension of Trikafta to low/non-responding rare misfolded CFTR mutants.

Clinical Consequences and Functional Impact of the Rare S737F CFTR Variant and Its Responsiveness to CFTR Modulators.

S737F is a Cystic Fibrosis (CF) transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) missense variant. The aim of our study was to describe the clinical features of a cohort of individuals carrying this variant. In parallel, by exploiting ex vivo functional and molecular analyses on nasal epithelia derived from a subset of S737F carriers, we evaluated its functional impact on CFTR protein as well as its responsiveness to CFTR modulators. We retrospectively collected clinical data of all individuals bearing at least one S737F CFTR variant and followed at the CF Centre of Tuscany region (Italy). Nasal brushing was performed in cooperating individuals. At study end clinical data were available for 10 subjects (mean age: 14 years; range 1-44 years; 3 adult individuals). Five asymptomatic subjects had CF, 2 were CRMS/CFSPID and 3 had an inconclusive diagnosis. Ex vivo analysis on nasal epithelia demonstrated different levels of CF activity. In particular, epithelia derived from asymptomatic CF subjects and from one of the subjects with inconclusive diagnosis showed reduced CFTR activity that could be rescued by treatment with CFTR modulators. On the contrary, in the epithelia derived from the other two individuals with an inconclusive diagnosis, the CFTR-mediated current was similar to that observed in epithelia derived from healthy donors. In vitro functional and biochemical analysis on S737F-CFTR expressed in immortalized bronchial cells highlighted a modest impairment of the channel activity, that was improved by treatment with ivacaftor alone or in combination with tezacaftor/elexacaftor. Our study provide evidence towards the evaluation of CFTR function on ex vivo nasal epithelial cell models as a new assay to help clinicians to classify individuals, in presence of discordance between clinical picture, sweat test and genetic profile.

The L467F-F508del Complex Allele Hampers Pharmacological Rescue of Mutant CFTR by Elexacaftor/Tezacaftor/Ivacaftor in Cystic Fibrosis Patients: The Value of the Ex Vivo Nasal Epithelial Model to Address Non-Responders to CFTR-Modulating Drugs.

Loss-of-function mutations of the CFTR gene cause cystic fibrosis (CF) through a variety of molecular mechanisms involving altered expression, trafficking, and/or activity of the CFTR chloride channel. The most frequent mutation among CF patients, F508del, causes multiple defects that can be, however, overcome by a combination of three pharmacological agents that improve CFTR channel trafficking and gating, namely, elexacaftor, tezacaftor, and ivacaftor. This study was prompted by the evidence of two CF patients, compound heterozygous for F508del and a minimal function variant, who failed to obtain any beneficial effects following treatment with the triple drug combination. Functional studies on nasal epithelia generated in vitro from these patients confirmed the lack of response to pharmacological treatment. Molecular characterization highlighted the presence of an additional amino acid substitution, L467F, in cis with the F508del variant, demonstrating that both patients were carriers of a complex allele. Functional and biochemical assays in heterologous expression systems demonstrated that the double mutant L467F-F508del has a severely reduced activity, with negligible rescue by CFTR modulators. While further studies are needed to investigate the actual prevalence of the L467F-F508del allele, our results suggest that this complex allele should be taken into consideration as plausible cause in CF patients not responding to CFTR modulators.

Comprehensive Analysis of Combinatorial Pharmacological Treatments to Correct Nonsense Mutations in the CFTR Gene.

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is caused by loss of function of the CFTR chloride channel. A substantial number of CF patients carry nonsense mutations in the CFTR gene. These patients cannot directly benefit from pharmacological correctors and potentiators that have been developed for other types of CFTR mutations. We evaluated the efficacy of combinations of drugs targeting at various levels the effects of nonsense mutations: SMG1i to protect CFTR mRNA from nonsense-mediated decay (NMD), G418 and ELX-02 for readthrough, VX-809 and VX-445 to promote protein maturation and function, PTI-428 to enhance CFTR protein synthesis. We found that the extent of rescue and sensitivity to the various agents is largely dependent on the type of mutation, with W1282X and R553X being the mutations most and least sensitive to pharmacological treatments, respectively. In particular, W1282X-CFTR was highly responsive to NMD suppression by SMG1i but also required treatment with VX-445 corrector to show function. In contrast, G542X-CFTR required treatment with readthrough agents and VX-809. Importantly, we never found cooperativity between the NMD inhibitor and readthrough compounds. Our results indicate that treatment of CF patients with nonsense mutations requires a precision medicine approach with the design of specific drug combinations for each mutation.

Partial Rescue of F508del-CFTR Stability and Trafficking Defects by Double Corrector Treatment.

Deletion of phenylalanine at position 508 (F508del) in the CFTR chloride channel is the most frequent mutation in cystic fibrosis (CF) patients. F508del impairs the stability and folding of the CFTR protein, thus resulting in mistrafficking and premature degradation. F508del-CFTR defects can be overcome with small molecules termed correctors. We investigated the efficacy and properties of VX-445, a newly developed corrector, which is one of the three active principles present in a drug (Trikafta®/Kaftrio®) recently approved for the treatment of CF patients with F508del mutation. We found that VX-445, particularly in combination with type I (VX-809, VX-661) and type II (corr-4a) correctors, elicits a large rescue of F508del-CFTR function. In particular, in primary bronchial epithelial cells of CF patients, the maximal rescue obtained with corrector combinations including VX-445 was close to 60-70% of CFTR function in non-CF cells. Despite this high efficacy, analysis of ubiquitylation, resistance to thermoaggregation, protein half-life, and subcellular localization revealed that corrector combinations did not fully normalize F508del-CFTR behavior. Our study indicates that it is still possible to further improve mutant CFTR rescue with the development of corrector combinations having maximal effects on mutant CFTR structural and functional properties.

Small Molecule Anion Carriers Correct Abnormal Airway Surface Liquid Properties in Cystic Fibrosis Airway Epithelia.

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disease characterized by the lack of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) protein expressed in epithelial cells. The resulting defective chloride and bicarbonate secretion and imbalance of the transepithelial homeostasis lead to abnormal airway surface liquid (ASL) composition and properties. The reduced ASL volume impairs ciliary beating with the consequent accumulation of sticky mucus. This situation prevents the normal mucociliary clearance, favouring the survival and proliferation of bacteria and contributing to the genesis of CF lung disease. Here, we have explored the potential of small molecules capable of facilitating the transmembrane transport of chloride and bicarbonate in order to replace the defective transport activity elicited by CFTR in CF airway epithelia. Primary human bronchial epithelial cells obtained from CF and non-CF patients were differentiated into a mucociliated epithelia in order to assess the effects of our compounds on some key properties of ASL. The treatment of these functional models with non-toxic doses of the synthetic anionophores improved the periciliary fluid composition, reducing the fluid re-absorption, correcting the ASL pH and reducing the viscosity of the mucus, thus representing promising drug candidates for CF therapy.

Functional analysis of acid-activated Cl⁻ channels: properties and mechanisms of regulation.

Cl⁻ channels activated by acidic extracellular pH have been observed in various mammalian cells but their molecular identity and mechanisms of regulation are unknown. The aim of this study was to analyse the acid-activated Cl- current (ICl(H)) by elucidating its functional properties and mechanisms of regulation in three different cell types: primary human bronchial epithelial (HBE) cells, neuroblastoma SK-N-MC cells and HEK-293 cells. We found that outward rectification, sensitivity to acidic pH (50% activation at pH5.15), permeability sequence (SCN⁻>I⁻>Br⁻>Cl⁻>gluconate), voltage dependence and sensitivity to blockers of ICl(H) were identical in all cells. These findings suggest a common molecular basis for ICl(H). We analysed the possible relationship of ICl(H) with members of ClC and TMEM16 protein families. By gene silencing, validated using RT-PCR, we found that ICl(H) is unrelated to ClC-3, ClC-7, TMEM16A, TMEM16D, TMEM16F, TMEM16H and TMEM16K. Analysis of possible mechanisms of regulation indicate that Ca²âº, ATP and phosphorylation by PKA or PKC do not seem to be implicated in channel activation. Instead, the inhibition of ICl(H) by genistein and wortmannin suggest regulation by other kinases, possibly a tyrosine kinase and a phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase. Moreover, by using dynasore, the dynamin inhibitor, we found indications that exo/endocytosis is a mechanism responsible for ICl(H) regulation. Our results provide the first evidence about acid-activated Cl⁻ channel regulation and, thus, could open the way for a better understanding of the channel function and for the molecular identification of the underlying protein.

Tezacaftor is a direct inhibitor of sphingolipid delta-4 desaturase enzyme (DEGS).

BACKGROUND: We recently demonstrated that 48 h exposure of primary human bronchial epithelial (hBE) cells, obtained from both CF (F508del homozygous) and non-CF subjects, to the triple drug combination Elexacaftor/Tezacaftor/Ivacaftor (ETI) results in a CFTR genotype-independent modulation of the de novo synthethic pathway of sphingolipids, with an accumulation of dihydroceramides (dHCer). Since dHCer are converted into ceramides (Cer) by the action of a delta-4 sphingolipid desaturase (DEGS) enzyme, we aimed to better understand this off-target effect of ETI (i.e., not related to CFTR rescue) METHODS: hBE cells, both F508del and wild-type, were cultured to create fully differentiated bronchial epithelia. We analyzed Cer and dHCer using an LC-MS based method previously developed by our lab. DEGS expression levels in differentiated hBE cells lysates were quantified by western blot analysis. RESULTS: We demonstrated that 1) dHCer accumulate in hBE with time following prolonged ETI exposure, that 2) similar inhibition occurs in wild-type primary human hepatocytes and that 3) this does not result in an alteration of DEGS expression. We then proved that 4) ETI is a direct inhibitor of DEGS, that 5) Tezacaftor is the molecule responsible for this effect, that 6) the inhibition is concentration dependent. Finally, after repeated oral administration of ETI to naïve, non-CF, mice, we observed a slight accumulation of dHCer in the brain. CONCLUSIONS: We believe that further investigations on Tezacaftor should be envisaged, particularly for the use of ETI during pregnancy, breastfeeding and in the early stages of development. DEGS dysfunction and dHCer accumulation causes impairment in the development of the nervous system, due to a derangement in myelin formation and maintenance.

The combination elexacaftor/tezacaftor/ivacaftor (ETI) modulates the de novo synthethic pathway of ceramides in a genotype-independent manner.

We report here how the triple combination of drugs elexacaftor/tezacaftor/ivacaftor (ETI) alters the balance of the de-novo synthethic pathway of sphingolipids in primary cells of human bronchial epithelium. The treatment with ETI roughly doubles the levels of dihydrosphingolipids, possibly by modulating the delta(4)-desaturase enzymes that convert dihydroceramides into ceramides. This appears to be an off-target effect of ETI, since it occurs in a genotype-independent manner, for both cystic fibrosis (CF) and non-CF subjects.

Rescue by elexacaftor-tezacaftor-ivacaftor of the G1244E cystic fibrosis mutation's stability and gating defects are dependent on cell background.

BACKGROUND: Cystic fibrosis is caused by mutations impairing expression, trafficking, stability and/or activity of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) chloride channel. The G1244E mutation causes a severe gating defect that it is not completely rescued by ivacaftor but requires the use of a second compound (a co-potentiator). Recently, it has been proposed that the corrector elexacaftor may act also as a co-potentiator. METHODS: By using molecular, biochemical and functional analyses we performed an in-depth characterization of the G1244E-CFTR mutant in heterologous and native cell models. RESULTS: Our studies demonstrate that processing and function of the mutant protein, as well as its pharmacological sensitivity, are markedly dependent on cell background. In heterologous expression systems, elexacaftor mainly acted on G1244E-CFTR as a co-potentiator, thus ameliorating the gating defect. On the contrary, in the native nasal epithelial cell model, elexacaftor did not act as a co-potentiator, but it increased mature CFTR expression possibly by improving mutant's defective stability at the plasma membrane. CONCLUSIONS: Our study highlights the importance of the cell background in the evaluation of CFTR modulator effects. Further, our results draw attention to the need for the development of novel potentiators having different mechanisms with respect to ivacaftor to improve channel activity for mutants with severe gating defect.

Synergistic effects of galantamine and memantine in attenuating scopolamine-induced amnesia in mice.

We investigated a possible drug efficacy enhancement obtained by combining inactive doses of galantamine and memantine in the scopolamine-induced amnesia model in mice. We evaluated the effects of the two drugs, either alone or in combination, using the spontaneous alternation and object recognition tasks. In both tests, combination of low doses of galantamine (0.1 mg/kg, s.c.) and memantine (0.5 mg/kg, i.p.), which were sub-active per se, rescued the memory impairment induced by scopolamine (1 mg/kg, i.p.). The results suggest that combinations of galantamine and memantine might provide a more effective treatment of memory impairments in cognitive disorders than either drug used alone.

CFTR Rescue by Lumacaftor (VX-809) Induces an Extensive Reorganization of Mitochondria in the Cystic Fibrosis Bronchial Epithelium.

BACKGROUND: Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disorder affecting around 1 in every 3000 newborns. In the most common mutation, F508del, the defective anion channel, CFTR, is prevented from reaching the plasma membrane (PM) by the quality check control of the cell. Little is known about how CFTR pharmacological rescue impacts the cell proteome. METHODS: We used high-resolution mass spectrometry, differential ultracentrifugation, machine learning and bioinformatics to investigate both changes in the expression and localization of the human bronchial epithelium CF model (F508del-CFTR CFBE41o-) proteome following treatment with VX-809 (Lumacaftor), a drug able to improve the trafficking of CFTR. RESULTS: The data suggested no stark changes in protein expression, yet subtle localization changes of proteins of the mitochondria and peroxisomes were detected. We then used high-content confocal microscopy to further investigate the morphological and compositional changes of peroxisomes and mitochondria under these conditions, as well as in patient-derived primary cells. We profiled several thousand proteins and we determined the subcellular localization data for around 5000 of them using the LOPIT-DC spatial proteomics protocol. CONCLUSIONS: We observed that treatment with VX-809 induces extensive structural and functional remodelling of mitochondria and peroxisomes that resemble the phenotype of healthy cells. Our data suggest additional rescue mechanisms of VX-809 beyond the correction of aberrant folding of F508del-CFTR and subsequent trafficking to the PM.

Learning and memory impairment induced by salvinorin A, the principal ingredient of Salvia divinorum, in wistar rats.

The effects of salvinorin A (Salvia divinorum principal ingredient), a potent κ-opioid natural hallucinogen, on learning and memory were investigated. Wistar rats were tested in the 8-arm radial maze, for object recognition and passive avoidance tasks for spatial, episodic, and aversive memory. Attention was assessed using a latent inhibition task. Salvinorin A (80-640 µg/kg subcutaneous [sc]) did not affect short-term memory, but it impaired spatial long-term memory. Episodic and aversive memories were impaired by salvinorin A (160-640 µg/kg). Memory impairment was blocked by the selective κ-opioid receptor antagonist, nor-binaltorphimine ([nor-B]; 0.5-1 mg/kg, intraperitoneal [ip]). Salvinorin A (160 µg/kg) disrupted latent inhibition, after LiCl treatment, such as reduced sucrose intake, suggesting an attention would result in an impairment of cognitive behavior. These findings demonstrate for the first time that salvinorin A has deleterious effects on learning and memory, through a κ-opioid receptor mechanism.

The Application of Bicarbonate Recovers the Chemical-Physical Properties of Airway Surface Liquid in Cystic Fibrosis Epithelia Models.

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disease associated with the defective function of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) protein that causes obstructive disease and chronic bacterial infections in airway epithelia. Deletion of phenylalanine at position 508, p.F508del, the most frequent mutation among CF patients, causes a folding and traffic defect, resulting in a dramatic reduction in the CFTR expression. To investigate whether the direct application of bicarbonate could modify the properties of the airway surface liquid (ASL), we measured the micro-viscosity, fluid transport and pH of human bronchial epithelial cells monolayers. We have demonstrated that the treatment of a CF-epithelia with an iso-osmotic solution containing bicarbonate is capable of reducing both, the ASL viscosity and the apical fluid re-absorption. We suggest the possibility of design a supportive treatment based on topical application of bicarbonate, or any other alkaline buffer.

Neuroprotective effects of genistein in Mongolian gerbils: estrogen receptor-ß involvement.

Genistein is a naturally occurring plant-derived phytoestrogen, present in the human diet, known to possess some beneficial effects. The present study investigated the effect of genistein on neuroprotection evaluated through electroencephalographic and behavioural correlates in a model of global cerebral ischemia in gerbils. Over the dose range tested, genistein (3 and 10 mg/kg), given 5 min after recirculation antagonized the ischemia-induced electroencephalographic total spectral power decrease 7 days after ischemia; fully prevented ischemia-induced hyperlocomotion evaluated 1 day after ischemia; reversed ischemia-induced memory impairment evaluated through both nest building behaviour and object recognition test; decreased malondialdehyde overproduction in the brain, evaluated 7 days after reperfusion; and fully promoted the survival of pyramidal cells in the CA(1) hippocampal subfield. The selective antagonist for estrogen receptor-ß (ERß), 4-[2-phenyl-5,7-bis(trifluoromethyl) pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidin-3-yl]phenol (PHTPP) given 30 min before carotid occlusion, fully prevented the neuroprotective effect of genistein at the dose of 3 mg/kg. These results demonstrate the neuroprotective effect of genistein through the activation of ERß and provide further grounds for the growing interest concerning the true potential of phytoestrogens as compounds to beneficially affect brain injury without having the disadvantages of estrogens.