Silicate coating to prevent leaching from radiolabeled surrogate far-field fallout in aqueous environments.

Recent characterization of radioactive particles indicate that a large percentage of the radioactivity observed during the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear meltdown was insoluble 137Cs bound within silica microparticles. Therefore, much of the decontamination research performed prior to the Fukushima incident that used either soluble radionuclides deposited onto wet surfaces or large (∼100 µm) particles characteristic of nuclear weapons fallout do not accurately represent the characteristics of potential contamination. Thus, the common practice of extrapolating radioactive decontamination methods generically to all radioactive release events is, at best, suspect. In response, a method to produce chemically-inert, radiolabeled silica particles was developed. Binding 152Eu within a sodium silicate coating required proper temperature control and ethanol was beneficial as a volatile dispersant to limit residues. In the end, a step-wise method, which first deposited 152Eu or 241Am as a nitrate salt, decomposed the salt to a sesquioxide, and finally coated the surface with sodium silicate led to dispersed particles of the desired 2 or 0.5 µm diameters. Dynamic light scattering and scanning election microscopy confirmed the particle size was unchanged. Leaching studies into several common decontaminants were performed to ensure particle inertness. Our approach allows for substitution of other radionuclides making it a robust, simple, and novel method to produce inert particle surrogates for a release event that allows direct comparison of decontamination techniques and contaminant fate studies, greatly aiding the development of response and recovery plans.

[Review of Experience and Prospects of the Use .of Some Countermeasures Aimed at Decontamination of Various Ecosystem Types after the Chernobyl Fallout].

The review of our own and literature data on ecosystems decontamination problems after the Chernobyl ac- cident is presented. It has been shown that protective measures are effective in places with the highest radio- capacity of ecosystems, especially those which may enhance the value of factors of ecosystefi radiocapacity. The analysis of a number of possible effects of impact of pollutants on the biosphere and the consequences of the implementation of protective measures (countermeasures) is given. The system of rehabilitation of con- taminated territories and, above all, soils, is proposed. The history of accidents at nuclear plants knows many planned and implemented countermeasures (CM), which can be used with different efficiency to eliminate the consequences of accidents. A variety of CM was implemented during the Chernobyl accident and elimination of its consequences. The main objectives that underlie the choice of CM is desactivation of ecosystems, reduction of individual doses for workers and residents, reducing the collective doses to the population defined by their special reduction factor. The effect of the CM on the condition of ecosystems has virtually never been evaluated. A number of the implemented countermeasures, the mechanical removal of the top lay- er of soil contaminated with radionuclides (bulldozers, scrapers, graders) led to the complete destruction of ecosystems, which are then required to be consolidated, in particular, by creating forests. It seems important and necessary to carry out the analysis and classification of the main CM based on the theory and radioca- pacity.models in order to assess how the parameters affect the countermeasures of ecosystem radiocapacity and to identify optimal solutions for their application.

Collaboration of local government and experts responding to increase in environmental radiation level due to the nuclear disaster: focusing on their activities and latest radiological discussion.

Activities were introduced in Kashiwa city in the Tokyo metropolitan area to correspond to the elevated environmental radiation level after the disaster of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant. These were based on a strong cooperation between local governments and experts. Ambient dose rate and radioactivity of foodstuff produced inside of the city have been monitored. Representative ambient dose rates around living environments have almost already become their original levels of the pre-accident because of the decontamination activity, natural washout and effective half-lives of radioactivity. The internal annual dose due to radioactive cesium under the policy of 'Local Production for Local Consumption' is estimated as extremely low comparing the variation range due to natural radioactivity. Systematic survey around a retention basin has been started. All of these latest monitoring data would be one of the core information for the policy making as well as a cost-benefit discussion and risk communication.

Collaboration of local governments and experts responding to the increase of the environmental radiation level secondary to the nuclear accident: a unique activity to relieve residents' anxiety.

After the Fukushima nuclear power plant accident, 'hot spots' were found in Tokatsu area in Chiba prefecture. Although ambient radiation dose in this area was too low to harm residents' health, local residents were particularly worried about possible adverse effects from exposure to radiation. To avoid unnecessary panic reactions in the public, local governments in Tokatsu area collaborated with radiation specialists and conducted activities to provide local residents with accurate information on health effects from radiation. In addition to these activities, the authors offered one-to-one consultations with a radiologist for parents of small children and expecting mothers. They herein report this unique attempt, focusing on parents' anxiety and the age of their children. Taken together, this unique collaborative activity between local government and experts would be one of the procedures to relieve residents' anxiety.

Analysis of fission and activation radionuclides produced by a uranium-fueled nuclear detonation and identification of the top dose-producing radionuclides.

The radiological assessment of the nuclear fallout (i.e., fission and neutron-activation radionuclides) from a nuclear detonation is complicated by the large number of fallout radionuclides. This paper provides the initial isotopic source term inventory of the fallout from a uranium-fueled nuclear detonation and identifies the significant and insignificant radiological dose producing radionuclides over 11 dose integration time periods (time phases) of interest. A primary goal of this work is to produce a set of consistent, time phase-dependent lists of the top dose-producing radionuclides that can be used to prepare radiological assessment calculations and data products (e.g., maps of areas that exceed protective action guidelines) in support of public and worker protection decisions. The ranked lists of top dose-producing radionuclides enable assessors to perform atmospheric dispersion modeling and radiological dose assessment modeling more quickly by using relatively short lists of radionuclides without significantly compromising the accuracy of the modeling and the dose projections. This paper also provides a superset-list of the top dose-producing fallout radionuclides from a uranium-fueled nuclear detonation that can be used to perform radiological assessments over any desired time phase. Furthermore, this paper provides information that may be useful to monitoring and sampling and laboratory analysis personnel to help understand which radionuclides are of primary concern. Finally, this paper may be useful to public protection decision makers because it shows the importance of quickly initiating public protection actions to minimize the radiological dose from fallout.

Release, deposition and elimination of radiocesium ((137)Cs) in the terrestrial environment.

Radionuclide contamination in terrestrial ecosystems has reached a dangerous level. The major artificial radionuclide present in the environment is (137)Cs, which is released as a result of weapon production related to atomic projects, accidental explosions of nuclear power plants and other sources, such as reactors, evaporation ponds, liquid storage tanks, and burial grounds. The release of potentially hazardous radionuclides (radiocesium) in recent years has provided the opportunity to conduct multidisciplinary studies on their fate and transport. Radiocesium's high fission yield and ease of detection made it a prime candidate for early radio-ecological investigations. The facility setting provides a diverse background for the improved understanding of various factors that contribute toward the fate and transfer of radionuclides in the terrestrial ecosystem. In this review, we summarize the significant environmental radiocesium transfer factors to determine the damaging effects of radiocesium on terrestrial ecosystem. It has been found that (137)Cs can trace the transport of other radionuclides that have a high affinity for binding to soil particles (silts and clays). Possible remedial methods are also discussed for contaminated terrestrial systems. This review will serve as a guideline for future studies of the fate and transport of (137)Cs in terrestrial environments in the wake of the Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant disaster in 2011.

New regulations for radiation protection for work involving radioactive fallout emitted by the TEPCO Fukushima Daiichi APP accident--disposal of contaminated soil and wastes.

The accident at the Fukushima Daiichi Atomic Power Plant that accompanied the Great East Japan Earthquake on March 11, 2011, released a large amount of radioactive material. To rehabilitate the contaminated areas, the government of Japan decided to carry out decontamination work and manage the waste resulting from decontamination. In the summer of 2013, the Ministry of the Environment planned to begin a full-scale process for waste disposal of contaminated soil and wastes removed as part of the decontamination work. The existing regulations were not developed to address such a large amount of contaminated wastes. The Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW), therefore, had to amend the existing regulations for waste disposal workers. The amendment of the general regulation targeted the areas where the existing exposure situation overlaps the planned exposure situation. The MHLW established the demarcation lines between the two regulations to be applied in each situation. The amendment was also intended to establish provisions for the operation of waste disposal facilities that handle large amounts of contaminated materials. Deliberation concerning the regulation was conducted when the facilities were under design; hence, necessary adjustments should be made as needed during the operation of the facilities.

The Chernobyl accident as a source of new radiological knowledge: implications for Fukushima rehabilitation and research programmes.

The accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine in 1986 caused a huge release of radionuclides over large areas of Europe. During large scale activities focused on overcoming of its negative consequences for public health, various research programmes in radioecology, dosimetry and radiation medicine were conducted. New knowledge was applied internationally in substantial updating of radiation protection systems for emergency and existing situations of human exposure, for improvement of emergency preparedness and response. Radioecological and dosimetry models were significantly improved and validated with numerous measurement data, guidance on environmental countermeasures and monitoring elaborated and tested.New radiological knowledge can be of use in the planning and implementation of rehabilitation programmes in Japan following the Fukushima nuclear accident. In particular, the following activity areas would benefit from application of the Chernobyl experience: strategy of rehabilitation, and technology of settlement decontamination and of countermeasures applied in agriculture and forestry. The Chernobyl experience could be very helpful in planning research activities initiated by the Fukushima radionuclide fallout, i.e. environmental transfer of radionuclides, effectiveness of site-specific countermeasures, nationwide dose assessment, health effect studies, etc.

Individual radiation exposure dose due to support activities at safe shelters in Fukushima Prefecture.

Immediately after the accidents in the nuclear power stations in Fukushima on March 11, the Japanese Government ordered the evacuation of the residents within a 20-km radius from the station on March 12, and asked various institutions to monitor the contamination levels of the residents. Hirosaki University, which is located 355 km north of Fukushima City, decided to send support staff to Fukushima. This report summarizes the results of the exposure of 13 individual teams from March 15 to June 20. The support teams surveyed more than 5,000 people during this period. Almost all subjects had external contamination levels of less than 13 kcpm on Geiger-Müller (GM) survey meter, which is categorized as "no contamination level." The 1(st) team showed the highest external exposure dose, but the 4(th) team onward showed no significant change. Subsequently, the internal radiation exposure was measured using a whole body counter that indicated undetectable levels in all staff members. Although the measured external radiation exposure dose cannot have serious biological effects on the health of an individual, a follow-up study of the residents in Fukushima and other regions where the radioactive material has spread will be required for a long time.

Analyzing evacuation versus shelter-in-place strategies after a terrorist nuclear detonation.

We superimpose a radiation fallout model onto a traffic flow model to assess the evacuation versus shelter-in-place decisions after the daytime ground-level detonation of a 10-kt improvised nuclear device in Washington, DC. In our model, ≈ 80k people are killed by the prompt effects of blast, burn, and radiation. Of the ≈ 360k survivors without access to a vehicle, 42.6k would die if they immediately self-evacuated on foot. Sheltering above ground would save several thousand of these lives and sheltering in a basement (or near the middle of a large building) would save of them. Among survivors of the prompt effects with access to a vehicle, the number of deaths depends on the fraction of people who shelter in a basement rather than self-evacuate in their vehicle: 23.1k people die if 90% shelter in a basement and 54.6k die if 10% shelter. Sheltering above ground saves approximately half as many lives as sheltering in a basement. The details related to delayed (i.e., organized) evacuation, search and rescue, decontamination, and situational awareness (via, e.g., telecommunications) have very little impact on the number of casualties. Although antibiotics and transfusion support have the potential to save ≈ 10k lives (and the number of lives saved from medical care increases with the fraction of people who shelter in basements), the logistical challenge appears to be well beyond current response capabilities. Taken together, our results suggest that the government should initiate an aggressive outreach program to educate citizens and the private sector about the importance of sheltering in place in a basement for at least 12 hours after a terrorist nuclear detonation.

Validation of environmental transfer models and assessment of the effectiveness of countermeasures using data on (131)I releases from Chernobyl.

The studies undertaken by the (131)I Working Group, part of the International Atomic Energy Agency's EMRAS (Environmental Modelling for Radiation Safety) programme, were focused primarily on evaluating the predictive capability of environmental models. Particular emphasis was placed on applying models to evaluate the effectiveness of countermeasures.

Evaluating factors affecting the permeability of emulsions used to stabilize radioactive contamination from a radiological dispersal device.

Present strategies for alleviating radioactive contamination from a radiological dispersal device (RDD) or dirty bomb involve either demolishing and removing radioactive surfaces or abandoning portions of the area near the release point. In both cases, it is imperative to eliminate or reduce migration of the radioisotopes until the cleanup is complete or until the radiation has decayed back to acceptable levels. This research investigated an alternative strategy of using emulsions to stabilize radioactive particulate contamination. Emergency response personnel would coat surfaces with emulsions consisting of asphalt or tall oil pitch to prevent migration of contamination. The site can then be evaluated and cleaned up as needed. In order for this approach to be effective, the treatment must eliminate migration of the radioactive agents in the terror device. Water application is an environmental condition that could promote migration into the external environment. This research investigated the potential for water, and correspondingly contaminant, migration through two emulsions consisting of Topein, a resinous byproduct during paper manufacture. Topein C is an asphaltic-based emulsion and Topein S is a tall oil pitch, nonionic emulsion. Experiments included water adsorption/ mobilization studies, filtration tests, and image analysis of photomicrographs from an environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM) and a stereomicroscope. Both emulsions were effective at reducing water migration. Conductivity estimates were on the order of 10(-80) cm s(-1) for Topein C and 10(-7) cm s(-1) for Topein S. Water mobility depended on emulsion flocculation and coalescence time. Photomicrographs indicate that Topein S consisted of greater and more interconnected porosity. Dilute foams of isolated spherical gas cells formed when emulsions were applied to basic surfaces. Gas cells rose to the surface and ruptured, leaving void spaces that penetrated throughout the emulsion. These experiments indicate that emulsions may be a viable means for containing RDD residuals; however, improvements are needed for optimal performance.

90Sr, 137Cs and (239,240)Pu concentration surface water time series in the Pacific and Indian Oceans--WOMARS results.

Under an IAEA's Co-ordinated Research Project "Worldwide Marine Radioactivity Studies (WOMARS)" 90Sr, 137Cs and (239,240)Pu concentration surface water time series in the Pacific and Indian Oceans have been investigated. The Pacific and Indian Oceans were divided into 17 latitudinal boxes according to ocean circulation, global fallout patterns and the location of nuclear weapons test sites. The present levels and time trends in radionuclide concentrations in surface water for each box were studied and the corresponding effective half-lives were estimated. For the year 2000, the estimated average 90Sr, 137Cs and (239,240)Pu concentrations in surface waters of the Pacific and Indian Oceans varied from 0.1 to 1.5 mBq/L, 0.1 to 2.8 mBq/L, and 0.1 to 5.2 microBq/L, respectively. The mean effective half-lives for 90Sr and 137Cs in surface water were 12+/-1 years for the North, 20+/-1 years for the South and 21+/-2 years for the Equatorial Pacific. For (239,240)Pu the corresponding mean effective half-lives were 7+/-1 years for the North, 12+/-4 years for the South and 10+/-2 years for the Equatorial Pacific. For the Indian Ocean the mean effective half-lives of 137Cs and (239,240)Pu were 21+/-2 years and 9+/-1 years, respectively. There is evidence that fallout removal rates before 1970 were faster than those observed during recent decades. The estimated surface water concentrations of 90Sr, 137Cs and (239,240)Pu in latitudinal belts of the Pacific and Indian Oceans for the year 2000 may be used as the average levels so that any new contribution from nuclear facilities, nuclear weapons test sites, radioactive waste dumping sites and from possible nuclear accidents can be identified.

Establishing remediation levels in response to a radiological dispersal event (or "dirty bomb").

The detonation of a radiological dispersal device (RDD) could produce significant social and economic damage, the extent of which would depend largely on how quickly and effectively cleanup levels were established and on public acceptance of those levels. This paper shows that current radiological cleanup laws and regulations, models for converting dose or risk goals to cleanup concentrations, and existing site-specific criteria were not designed specifically for RDD cleanups but, absent changes, would apply by default. The goals and approaches of these legal and methodological structures often conflict; using them in response to terrorism could undermine public confidence, cause delays, and produce unnecessary costs or unacceptable cleanups. RDD cleanups would involve immediate priorities not envisioned in the existing radiological cleanup framework, such as balancing radiation risks with the health, economic, and other societal impacts associated with access to the infrastructure necessary to sustain society (e.g., hospitals, bridges, utilities). To minimize the achievement of terrorism goals, the elements of an RDD cleanup response--including updating existing legal/regulatory structures to clarify federal authority, goals, and methods for developing RDD cleanup criteria--must be in place soon; given the complexity of the issues and the potential societal impact, this effort should be expedited.

Radiation disasters and children.

The special medical needs of children make it essential that pediatricians be prepared for radiation disasters, including 1) the detonation of a nuclear weapon; 2) a nuclear power plant event that unleashes a radioactive cloud; and 3) the dispersal of radionuclides by conventional explosive or the crash of a transport vehicle. Any of these events could occur unintentionally or as an act of terrorism. Nuclear facilities (eg, power plants, fuel processing centers, and food irradiation facilities) are often located in highly populated areas, and as they age, the risk of mechanical failure increases. The short- and long-term consequences of a radiation disaster are significantly greater in children for several reasons. First, children have a disproportionately higher minute ventilation, leading to greater internal exposure to radioactive gases. Children have a significantly greater risk of developing cancer even when they are exposed to radiation in utero. Finally, children and the parents of young children are more likely than are adults to develop enduring psychologic injury after a radiation disaster. The pediatrician has a critical role in planning for radiation disasters. For example, potassium iodide is of proven value for thyroid protection but must be given before or soon after exposure to radioiodines, requiring its placement in homes, schools, and child care centers. Pediatricians should work with public health authorities to ensure that children receive full consideration in local planning for a radiation disaster.