Correlates of the Selection Validation Survey with Police Officer Field Performance.

In the present study, we examined performance rating correlates of the Selection Validation Survey (SVS), an informant rating form used to describe the characteristics of newly hired public safety personnel following their initial training period. We correlated SVS ratings for n = 174 police officers with aggregate scores derived from daily performance observation ratings provided by their field training officers (i.e., senior law enforcement officers assigned to train, observe, and evaluate police recruits during a formal 16-week training period). Results generally indicated moderate to strong associations between conceptually similar SVS ratings and field training officer scores, providing evidence that the SVS variables validly summarize performance-relevant data accrued during the field training period. For example, a single SVS item asking the rater to characterize the officer's overall field performance correlated highly in the expected direction (Spearman's rho = -.69) with a composite of daily ratings describing the officer's observed field performance and problem-solving skills. Taken together, these findings indicate that the SVS meaningfully and efficiently captures a range of important information regarding the performance and professional skills of new police officers, providing a useful validation criterion for predictors of police officer performance.

Comparing the Validity of MMPI-3 Scores in Prehire Psychological Screenings of Male and Female Police Officer Candidates.

Psychological testing is an important component of the screening process for public safety officers. The use of standardized measures is intended to increase the objectivity of preemployment evaluations, highlighting the importance of examining tests used in these assessments for evidence of differential validity. Differential validity is indicated when a screening measure is unequally associated with, or systematically over- or under-predicts, a criterion across demographic groups. In the current study, we examined for differential validity in Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-3 (MMPI-3) scores in a sample of 527 police officer candidates (455 males, 72 females). We first calculated correlations between MMPI-3 scores and job-relevant historical variables. Next, for variable pairings that yielded at least a small effect size, regression models were estimated in a multi-group framework comparing associations between MMPI-3 scores and the historical variables across men and women. The analyses yielded statistical evidence of negligible differential validity across gender in police officer screenings. Implications of these findings and limitations of this study are discussed.

Criterion Validity and Practical Utility of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF) in Assessments of Police Officer Candidates.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form scores for 145 male police officer candidates were compared with supervisor ratings of field performance and problem behaviors during their initial probationary period. Results indicated that the officers produced meaningfully lower and less variant substantive scale scores compared to the general population. After applying a statistical correction for range restriction, substantive scale scores from all domains assessed by the inventory demonstrated moderate to large correlations with performance criteria. The practical significance of these results was assessed with relative risk ratio analyses that examined the utility of specific cutoffs on scales demonstrating associations with performance criteria.

Does prior law enforcement experience affect scores on preemployment psychological testing? An investigation using the MMPI-3.

Most states require that a police candidate's suitability be assessed through preemployment psychological evaluations. Given the psychological stress officers experience in the line of duty, it is possible that experienced candidates would produce scores indicating greater dysfunction on psychological testing relative to inexperienced candidates. No known research has investigated whether police candidates produce different preemployment test scores across experience levels. The present study sought to address this gap in the literature and offer data to guide evaluators' interpretation of test scores for candidates with prior law enforcement (LE) experience. We used a sample of 400 police candidates (18.5% women) evaluated for positions at several LE agencies for whom Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-3 (MMPI-3) scores were available. Results showed no practically meaningful differences when comparing MMPI-3 scores of candidates with no prior experience, less than 5 years of experience, and 5 or more years of experience. We also compared frequencies at which the three groups elevated MMPI-3 scales at cutoffs specified in Assessing Police and Other Public Safety Personnel Using the MMPI-3: A Practical Guide (Corey & Ben-Porath, 2022) and found minimal differences. Together, these findings indicate that MMPI-3 scores can be interpreted consistently with published guidelines regardless of a candidate's prior LE experience. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Associations Between MMPI-3 and Psychosocial History Findings Obtained in Preemployment Evaluations of Public Safety Candidates.

The present study evaluated the validity of Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-3 (MMPI-3) scores among police (n = 1,294), correctional officer (n = 190), dispatcher (n = 205), and firefighter (n = 237) candidates using psychosocial history data collected with the Psychological History Questionnaire (PsyQ) at a private practice in the Northwestern United States. MMPI-3 scale elevations at T score cutoffs specified in the MMPI-3 User's Guide for the Public Safety Candidate Interpretive Reports (Corey & Ben-Porath, 2022) were examined. Consistent with previous research using the MMPI-2-RF, MMPI-3 T score means were lower and less variable in this public safety preemployment context relative to the normative sample. In addition, MMPI-3 scores were meaningfully associated with a number of aggregated scale scores derived from PsyQ data, particularly in the behavioral/externalizing domain. To address limited research on preemployment personality testing among female police candidates and the absence of research among nonpolice public safety occupations, Cohen's q was used to compare validity coefficients across male and female police candidates and across police and correctional officer, dispatcher, and firefighter candidates. Differences were minimal, with all statistically significant effects being small in magnitude, indicating the MMPI-3 correlates identified with police candidates replicate to other public safety positions.

The Role of Genetically Distinct Central Amygdala Neurons in Appetitive and Aversive Responding Assayed with a Novel Dual Valence Operant Conditioning Paradigm.

To survive, animals must meet their biological needs while simultaneously avoiding danger. However, the neurobiological basis of appetitive and aversive survival behaviors has historically been studied using separate behavioral tasks. While recent studies in mice have quantified appetitive and aversive conditioned responses simultaneously (Jikomes et al., 2016; Heinz et al., 2017), these tasks required different behavioral responses to each stimulus. As many brain regions involved in survival behavior process stimuli of opposite valence, we developed a paradigm in which mice perform the same response (nose poke) to distinct auditory cues to obtain a rewarding outcome (palatable food) or avoid an aversive outcome (mild footshoock). This design allows for both within-subject and between-subject comparisons as animals respond to appetitive and aversive cues. The central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) is implicated in the regulation of responses to stimuli of either valence. Considering its role in threat processing (Wilensky et al., 2006; Haubensak et al., 2010) and regulation of incentive salience (Warlow and Berridge, 2021), it is important to examine the contribution of the CeA to mechanisms potentially underlying comorbid dysregulation of avoidance and reward (Sinha, 2008; Bolton et al., 2009). Using this paradigm, we tested the role of two molecularly defined CeA subtypes previously linked to consummatory and defensive behaviors. Significant strain differences in the acquisition and performance of the task were observed. Bidirectional chemogenetic manipulation of CeA somatostatin (SOM) neurons altered motivation for reward and perseveration of reward-seeking responses on avoidance trials. Manipulation of corticotropin-releasing factor neurons (CRF) had no significant effect on food reward consumption, motivation, or task performance. This paradigm will facilitate investigations into the neuronal mechanisms controlling motivated behavior across valences.

The role of genetically distinct central amygdala neurons in appetitive and aversive responding assayed with a novel dual valence operant conditioning paradigm.

To survive, animals must meet their biological needs while simultaneously avoiding danger. However, the neurobiological basis of appetitive and aversive survival behaviors has historically been studied using separate behavioral tasks. While recent studies in mice have quantified appetitive and aversive conditioned responses simultaneously (Heinz et al., 2017; Jikomes et al., 2016), these tasks required different behavioral responses to each stimulus. As many brain regions involved in survival behavior process stimuli of opposite valence, we developed a paradigm in which mice perform the same response (nosepoke) to distinct auditory cues to obtain a rewarding outcome (palatable food) or avoid an aversive outcome (mild footshoock). This design allows for both within- and between-subject comparisons as animals respond to appetitive and aversive cues. The central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) is implicated in the regulation of responses to stimuli of either valence. Considering its role in threat processing (Haubensak et al., 2010; Wilensky et al., 2006) and regulation of incentive salience (Warlow and Berridge, 2021), it is important to examine the contribution of the CeA to mechanisms potentially underlying comorbid dysregulation of avoidance and reward (Bolton et al., 2009; Sinha, 2008). Using this paradigm, we tested the role of two molecularly defined CeA subtypes previously linked to consummatory and defensive behaviors. Significant strain differences in the acquisition and performance of the task were observed. Bidirectional chemogenetic manipulation of CeA somatostatin (SOM) neurons altered motivation for reward and perseveration of reward-seeking responses on avoidance trials. Manipulation of corticotropin-releasing factor neurons (CRF) had no significant effect on food reward consumption, motivation, or task performance. This paradigm will facilitate investigations into the neuronal mechanisms controlling motivated behavior across valences. Significance Statement: It is unclear how different neuronal populations contribute to reward- and aversion-driven behaviors within a subject. To address this question, we developed a novel behavioral paradigm in which mice obtain food and avoid footshocks via the same operant response. We then use this paradigm to test how the central amygdala coordinates appetitive and aversive behavioral responses. By testing somatostatin-IRES-Cre and CRF-IRES-Cre transgenic lines, we found significant differences between strains on task acquisition and performance. Using chemogenetics, we demonstrate that CeA SOM+ neurons regulate motivation for reward, while manipulation of CeA CRF+ neurons had no effect on task performance. Future studies investigating the interaction between positive and negative motivation circuits should benefit from the use of this dual valence paradigm.

Evidence for the comparability of local and remote administrations of the MMPI-2-RF in police candidate evaluations.

In this study, we explore the effects of in-person versus remote administration and in-person versus remote proctoring on scores on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF) in the context of police candidate preemployment evaluations. To this end, we compare data gathered from candidates who completed the test under standard, in-person conditions with data from candidates who completed the test remotely with the Q-global Remote On-Screen Assessment (ROSA) system, using either in-person or remote proctoring. We find that the standard group (n = 3,311), remote administration/in-person proctoring group (ROSA-IPP; n = 108), and remote administration/remote proctoring group (ROSA-RP; n = 90) all produce very similar distributions of scores, with group differences in means and standard deviations no greater than two T-score points per scale. Examination of the correlations between MMPI-2-RF externalizing scale scores and a set of relevant extra-test criteria for the ROSA-IPP and ROSA-RP groups reveals little difference between groups and suggests patterns of convergent and discriminant validity similar to those observed in studies of the MMPI-2-RF under standard administration conditions. Taken together, these findings provide evidence that the MMPI-2-RF's psychometric properties in police candidate preemployment evaluations are equivalent regardless of whether the test is administered in-person or remotely and whether proctoring is conducted in-person or remotely. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Examining the Validity of the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire in the Assessment of Police Candidates.

A well-validated test of normal personality functioning is necessary in preemployment evaluations of candidates for public safety positions. In this study, we evaluated the construct validity and predictive validity of one such measure, the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ), in a large sample of candidates for law enforcement positions. We examined associations between MPQ scale scores and biographical data, clinician suitability ratings on the 10 established California Commission on Peace Officer and Standards and Training (POST) psychological screening dimensions, and (for a subsample) posthire performance outcome data. MPQ scores generally demonstrated a conceptually expected pattern of associations with criterion variables, supporting their construct validity. Scores related to negative emotionality were particularly salient predictors of a range of POST-10 suitability ratings. Scales assessing aspects of positive emotionality, impulsivity, as well as absorption, emerged as the best predictors of posthire performance problems.

Music Training, and the Ability of Musicians to Harmonize, Are Associated With Enhanced Planning and Problem-Solving.

Music training is associated with enhanced executive function but little is known about the extent to which harmonic aspects of musical training are associated with components of executive function. In the current study, an array of cognitive tests associated with one or more components of executive function, was administered to young adult musicians and non-musicians. To investigate how harmonic aspects of musical training relate to executive function, a test of the ability to compose a four-part harmony was developed and administered to musicians. We tested the working hypothesis that musicians would outperform non-musicians on measures of executive function, and that among musicians, the ability to harmonize would correlate positively with measures of executive function. Results indicate that musicians outperformed non-musicians on the Tower of London task, a measure of planning and problem-solving. Group differences were not detected on tasks more selective for inhibitory control, conflict resolution, or working memory. Among musicians, scores on the harmony assessment were positively correlated with performance of the Tower of London task. Taken together, the current results support a strong relationship between musicianship and planning and problem solving abilities, and indicate that the ability to harmonize is associated with components of executive function contributing to planning and problem solving.

Relevance of subcortical stroke in dysphagia.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Unilateral cortical lesions are associated with dysphagia in ischemic stroke. It is unclear, however, whether acute subcortical stroke is associated with a similar risk of dysphagia. The aim of this study was to determine the occurrence of dysphagia in purely subcortical stroke and identify dysphagia characteristics. METHODS: Between 2003 and 2005, videofluoroscopic swallow studies (VFSSs) were completed in 20 consecutive ischemic stroke patients with purely subcortical lesions (right hemisphere damage [RHD]=10, left hemisphere damage [LHD]=10) and 25 age-matched controls. Individuals were classified with dysphagia when at least 2 swallowing measures were 2 standard deviations above mean scores for the control group. Lesion volume, hemisphere, and location were determined from diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging scans. RESULTS: Seven subcortical stroke patients (35%) met VFSS criteria for dysphagia (LHD=5, RHD=2); 4 patients presented with clinically significant dysphagia. A significant interaction between hemisphere and lesion location was identified. Whereas 3 of 5 patients with dysphagia (60%) had lesions to the left periventricular white matter (PVWM), LHD patients without dysphagia did not have PVWM lesions. In contrast, no RHD patients with PVWM lesions had dysphagia, and 6 of 8 patients without dysphagia (75%) had PVWM lesions. Oral transfer was significantly slower in patients with subcortical stroke compared with the healthy adults. CONCLUSIONS: Lesions to the left PVWM may be more disruptive to swallowing behavior than similar lesions to the right PVWM. Swallowing deficits involving oral control and transfer may be a marker of subcortical neural axis involvement.

Comparison of sequential swallowing in patients with acute stroke and healthy adults.

OBJECTIVES: To compare hyolaryngeal complex (HLC) movement and leading-edge-of-the-bolus location patterns of sequential swallowing in patients with stroke and healthy adults, and to determine whether these patterns affect swallowing safety. DESIGN: Between-groups comparison. SETTING: Veterans hospital. PARTICIPANTS: Consecutively admitted patients with acute unilateral supratentorial stroke (right hemisphere damage, n=13; left hemisphere damage, n=16) and age-matched healthy participants (n=25). INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: HLC movement pattern, bolus location, Penetration-Aspiration (P-A) Scale score. RESULTS: No significant group differences were observed for HLC movement pattern, bolus location, and P-A Scale score. Specific HLC movement patterns and bolus location were not associated with a higher P-A Scale score. A significant correlation between HLC movement pattern and bolus location was observed. Bolus location was typically inferior to the valleculae between swallows when the HLC was partially elevated. Across all groups, P-A Scale scores were significantly higher during sequential swallowing than single swallows. CONCLUSIONS: HLC movement pattern and bolus location do not appear related to airway invasion, at least in persons without significant dysphagia. Given higher P-A Scale scores during sequential swallowing as compared with single swallows, sequential swallowing should always be evaluated in all patients.

Defining and measuring dysphagia following stroke.

PURPOSE: To continue the development of a quantified, standard method to differentiate individuals with stroke and dysphagia from individuals without dysphagia. METHOD: Videofluoroscopic swallowing studies (VFSS) were completed on a group of participants with acute stroke (n = 42) and healthy age-matched individuals (n = 25). Calibrated liquid volumes of 3, 5, 10, and 20 ml were administered during the VFSS. Six measures in 3 domains of bolus flow (timing, direction, and clearance) were measured. Values of these measures obtained from the control group were used to classify dysphagia within the participants. RESULTS: The use of a single measure or single liquid volumes to classify dysphagia did not distinguish between healthy adults and individuals following stroke with and without dysphagia. Abnormality on more than 1 measure across multiple volumes appears to be a more robust method in defining dysphagia for liquids. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that the definition of dysphagia is critical in determining whether persons are classified with disordered swallowing. The definition is dependent on materials and measures evaluated. Each measure provides independent aspects to the evaluation. Determining the level of importance of each depends on the purpose of the evaluation.

Risks associated with overcontrolled behavior in police officer recruits.

Potential externalizing tendencies have long been a focus of research in police candidates. Early studies often reported positive correlations between Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) externalizing scales and problem behaviors in law enforcement officers. However, more recent investigations reveal mixed findings, with some showing either no significant correlations between externalizing measures and police performance problems or negative associations. In the current study, we examined associations between MMPI-2 Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF) externalizing scale scores and personal history information (biodata) in a large sample (n = 1,226) of police officer candidates and observed expected positive correlations between them. Next, we examined associations between MMPI-2-RF externalizing scale scores and biodata and posthire performance measures in a subset of officers who were judged to be psychologically qualified, were subsequently hired, and for whom posthire performance records were available. We hypothesized that recently observed negative correlations would be replicated, and that this could be attributed to overcontrolled behavior, as reflected in low externalizing scale scores. Our findings were consistent with expectations. Finally, we found that, by and large, MMPI-2-RF scores and biodata augmented one another in the prediction of poor performance outcomes due to overcontrolled behavior among hired police officer recruits. Implications for considering overcontrolled behavior as a potential risk factor when evaluating police officer candidates are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Anatomical asymmetries of anterior perisylvian speech-language regions.

Anterior cortical perisylvian areas important for speech and language functions include the pars triangularis (PTR), comprised of heteromodal association cortex, and the pars opercularis (POP), comprised of motor association cortex. The anatomy of these frontal language regions has not been well studied in large samples, however in smaller samples, leftward asymmetry of these regions has been found. Sex-linked differences have also been suggested, with bilateral activation of frontal language areas in women and leftward activation in men. We used volumetric MRI methods to measure the gray matter volume of the PTR, POP, and diagonal sulcus (DS) in 60 healthy right-handed adults and examined the distribution of asymmetry of these regions. Sex-linked differences in volume and asymmetry of anterior speech regions were also examined. For the PTR, there was a slight leftward asymmetry, however for the POP+DS, there was a slight rightward asymmetry. The DS was present slightly more often in the right hemisphere than in the left hemisphere and its frequency was similar in men and women. There were no significant sex-linked differences in volume or asymmetry for any of these frontal areas. More studies are necessary, looking at the anatomy of anterior language regions in large samples and examining the relationship between anatomy and function.

Effects of verbal cue on bolus flow during swallowing.

PURPOSE: To examine the effects of verbal cuing to initiate swallowing on bolus flow measures in healthy adults. METHOD: Videofluoroscopic examinations were completed in 12 healthy older adults (median age=69 years) as they swallowed 5 ml of self-administered liquid barium in 2 conditions: verbally cued and noncued swallows. In the cued condition, participants held the liquid in their mouths until instructed to swallow. In the noncued condition, participants swallowed in their usual manner. RESULTS: Verbal cue affected bolus position at onset of timing measures, thereby influencing duration. The bolus was positioned more posterior in the oral cavity at onset of oral transit for cued as compared with noncued swallows. The leading edge of the bolus at onset of the pharyngeal swallow was more superior in the pharynx for cued as compared with noncued swallows. Durations of the cued swallows were significantly shorter than for noncued swallows for all timing measures. Bolus direction scores were not significantly different between conditions. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that swallowing is altered by the use of verbal cues to initiate swallowing in healthy adults. Determining whether shorter durations with implementation of verbal cues are evident in individuals with dysphagia and whether effects are beneficial or deleterious requires continued research.

Verbal dichotic listening in right and left-handed adults: laterality effects of directed attention.

Dichotic listening performance of consonant vowel stimuli was studied in 51 adult right- and left-handers in three attention conditions: non-directed and directed to either the right or left ear. In the non-directed condition, a significant right-ear advantage was found in both handedness groups with a stronger asymmetry in right-handers. There are at least three explanations for this ear bias. The classic or structural hypothesis suggests that to the right ear projects more strongly to the language dominant left hemisphere. The callosal relay hypothesis is based on the influence of inhibitory connections via the corpus callosum. The attentional hypothesis suggests that each hemisphere primarily directs attention to contralateral space and because the left hemisphere is dominant for language in both groups, and is aroused by speech stimuli, attention is primarily directed to the right ear. Neither hypothesis can explain why greater than 95% of right-handers have left hemisphere language dominance, but only 70-80% have a right ear bias. Our results demonstrate that in the directed attention conditions both groups increased their lateral biases when directed to either the right or left. The classic or structural hypothesis cannot account for these changes, thereby providing support for the attentional hypothesis. In addition, the right-handed subjects exhibited a greater shift of bias than did the left-handed subjects, when directing their attention leftward. This finding suggests that right-handed people are better able to shift their attention than left-handed people.

Lobar asymmetries in subtypes of dyslexic and control subjects.

Reading involves phonologic decoding, in which readers "sound out" a word; orthographic decoding, in which readers recognize a word visually, as in "sight reading"; and comprehension. Because reading can involve multiple processes, dyslexia might be a heterogeneous disorder. This study investigated behavior and gross lobar anatomy in subtypes of dyslexic and control subjects. Subjects aged 18 to 25 years with identified reading problems and a group of healthy controls were given cognitive and behavioral tests and volumetric brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Because atypical cerebral laterality has been proposed as a potential neural risk for dyslexia, dyslexic and control subjects were compared on anatomy of gross lobar regions. On asymmetry quotients, no significant differences were found between groups. Examination of the percentage of total brain volume of each structure revealed that control and dyslexic subjects were significantly different (P = .018). Dyslexic subjects had a larger percentage of brain volume than did the controls in the areas of total prefrontal (P = .003; 9.30% larger) and superior prefrontal (P = .004; 11.48% larger region). A Pearson correlation was performed to investigate whether a relationship existed between behavioral measures and either volumes of total prefrontal and total occipital regions or asymmetry quotients. A significant positive relationship between the left total occipital and word identification performance existed (R = .452, P = .045). Because it is believed by some that dyslexia occurs in varying degrees of severity, and because one of the research questions in this study is whether anatomy relates to severity or to distinct biologic groups, subjects were grouped according to both the nature and distinct pattern of reading or language performance and the degree of deficit. A battery of reading tests revealed five clinical subgroups of control (two) and dyslexic (three) subjects. These subgroups were statistically different on all cognitive and behavioral measures. When asymmetry was investigated across subgroups, significant differences between subgroups were found at the multivariate level (P = .043). Only the phonologic deficit groups (weak phonologic controls, phonologic deficit dyslexic subjects) had atypical asymmetry patterns. This finding suggests that lack of subtyping could have confounded earlier studies and that anomalous asymmetry might be related to phonologic dyslexia, whereas other subtypes might be reflective of environmental factors. Examination of volume at the subgroup level also showed differences between subgroups that might have implications for the nature of compensation. This study supports the concept that anomalous anatomy might reflect anomalous functional cerebral laterality, which could be a risk factor for developmental dyslexia, varying according to the nature of the deficit.

Variability in perisylvian brain anatomy in healthy adults.

Gray matter volumes of Heschl's gyrus (HG), planum temporale (PT), pars triangularis (PTR), and pars opercularis were measured on MRI in 48 healthy right-handers. There was the expected leftward PT asymmetry in 70.8%, and leftward PTR asymmetry in 64.6% of the sample. When asymmetry patterns within individuals were examined, there was not one typical pattern, rather several typical configurations were found. In addition, some combinations of asymmetry did not exist in our sample suggesting that some perisylvian anatomical configurations may provide a more suitable neural substrate for the development of language than others. There were also sex differences in HG. Men had rightward asymmetry and women demonstrated leftward asymmetry, due to women having smaller right HG, compared to men.

A Prorating Method for Estimating MMPI-2-RF Scores From MMPI Responses: Examination of Score Fidelity and Illustration of Empirical Utility in the PERSEREC Police Integrity Study Sample.

The purpose of the current study was to identify Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF) correlates of police officer integrity violations and other problem behaviors in an archival database with original MMPI item responses and collateral information regarding integrity violations obtained for 417 male officers. In Study 1, we estimated MMPI-2-RF scores from the MMPI item pool (which includes approximately 80% of the MMPI-2-RF items) in a normative sample, a psychiatric inpatient sample, and a police officer sample, and conducted analyses that demonstrated the comparability of estimated and full scale scores for 41 of the 51 MMPI-2-RF scales. In Study 2, we correlated estimated MMPI-2-RF scores with information about subsequent integrity violations and problem behaviors from the integrity violation data set. Several meaningful associations were obtained, predominately with scales from the emotional, thought, and behavioral dysfunction domains of the MMPI-2-RF. Application of a correction for range restriction yielded substantially improved validity estimates. Finally, we calculated relative risk ratios for the statistically significant findings using cutoffs lower than 65T, which is traditionally used to identify clinically significant elevations, and found several meaningful relative risk ratios.