Integrin-dependent control of translation: engagement of integrin alphaIIbbeta3 regulates synthesis of proteins in activated human platelets.

Integrins are widely expressed plasma membrane adhesion molecules that tether cells to matrix proteins and to one another in cell-cell interactions. Integrins also transmit outside-in signals that regulate functional responses of cells, and are known to influence gene expression by regulating transcription. In previous studies we found that platelets, which are naturally occurring anucleate cytoplasts, translate preformed mRNA transcripts when they are activated by outside-in signals. Using strategies that interrupt engagement of integrin alphaIIbbeta3 by fibrinogen and platelets deficient in this integrin, we found that alphaIIbbeta3 regulates the synthesis of B cell lymphoma 3 (Bcl-3) when platelet aggregation is induced by thrombin. We also found that synthesis of Bcl-3, which occurs via a specialized translation control pathway regulated by mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), is induced when platelets adhere to immobilized fibrinogen in the absence of thrombin and when integrin alphaIIbbeta3 is engaged by a conformation-altering antibody against integrin alphaIIbbeta3. Thus, outside-in signals delivered by integrin alphaIIbbeta3 are required for translation of Bcl-3 in thrombin-stimulated aggregated platelets and are sufficient to induce translation of this marker protein in the absence of thrombin. Engagement of integrin alpha2beta1 by collagen also triggered synthesis of Bcl-3. Thus, control of translation may be a general mechanism by which surface adhesion molecules regulate gene expression.

Activated platelets mediate inflammatory signaling by regulated interleukin 1beta synthesis.

Platelets release preformed mediators and generate eicosanoids that regulate acute hemostasis and inflammation, but these anucleate cytoplasts are not thought to synthesize proteins or cytokines, or to influence inflammatory responses over time. Interrogation of an arrayed cDNA library demonstrated that quiescent platelets contain many messenger RNAs, one of which codes for interleukin 1beta precursor (pro-IL-1beta). Unexpectedly, the mRNA for IL-1beta and many other transcripts are constitutively present in polysomes, providing a mechanism for rapid synthesis. Platelet activation induces rapid and sustained synthesis of pro-IL-1beta protein, a response that is abolished by translational inhibitors. A portion of the IL-1beta is shed in its mature form in membrane microvesicles, and induces adhesiveness of human endothelial cells for neutrophils. Signal-dependent synthesis of an active cytokine over several hours indicates that platelets may have previously unrecognized roles in inflammation and vascular injury. Inhibition of beta3 integrin engagement markedly attenuated the synthesis of IL-1beta, identifying a new link between the coagulation and inflammatory cascades, and suggesting that antithrombotic therapies may also have novel antiinflammatory effects.

PDK1 governs thromboxane generation and thrombosis in platelets by regulating activation of Raf1 in the MAPK pathway.

Essentials Phosphoinositide 3-kinase and MAPK pathways crosstalk via PDK1. PDK1 is required for adenosine diphosphate-induced platelet activation and thromboxane generation. PDK1 regulates RAF proto-oncogene Ser/Thr kinase (Raf1) activation in the MAPK pathway. Genetic ablation of PDK1 protects against platelet-dependent thrombosis in vivo. SUMMARY: Background Platelets are dynamic effector cells with functions that span hemostatic, thrombotic and inflammatory continua. Phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase 1 (PDK1) regulates protease-activated receptor 4-induced platelet activation and thrombus formation through glycogen synthase kinase3ß. However, whether PDK1 also signals through the ADP receptor and its functional importance in vivo remain unknown. Objective To establish the mechanism of PDK1 in ADP-induced platelet activation and thrombosis. Methods We assessed the role of PDK1 on 2MeSADP-induced platelet activation by measuring aggregation, thromboxane generation and phosphorylation events in the presence of BX-795, which inhibits PDK1, or by using platelet-specific PDK1 knockout mice and performing western blot analysis. PDK1 function in thrombus formation was assessed with an in vivo pulmonary embolism model. Results PDK1 inhibition with BX-795 reduced 2-methylthio-ADP (2MeSADP)-induced aggregation of human and murine platelets by abolishing thromboxane generation. Similar results were observed in pdk1-/- mice. PDK1 was also necessary for the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 1/2 (MEK1/2), extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2, and cytosolic phospholipase A2, indicating that PDK1 regulates an upstream kinase in the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. We next determined that this upstream kinase is Raf-1, a serine/threonine kinase that is necessary for the phosphorylation of MEK1/2, as pharmacological inhibition and genetic ablation of PDK1 were sufficient to prevent Raf1 phosphorylation. Furthermore, in vivo inhibition or genetic ablation of PDK1 protected mice from collagen/epinephrine-induced pulmonary embolism. Conclusion PDK1 governs thromboxane generation and thrombosis in platelets that are stimulated with 2MeSADP by regulating activation of the MAPK pathway.

Sialyl Lewisx-containing oligosaccharide attenuates myocardial reperfusion injury in cats.

Neutrophil (PMN) adhesion to the vascular endothelium is an important mechanism of myocardial reperfusion injury. The adhesion process is initially mediated by selectins (e.g., P- and L-selectin), and monoclonal antibodies directed against these adhesion molecules exert cardioprotective activity in ischemia/reperfusion models. The counterreceptors for these selectins are thought to be carbohydrate-containing moieties. In this connection, we studied the effect of a soluble sialyl Lewisx-containing oligosaccharide (SLex-OS) on PMN-endothelial interactions in a feline model of myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (MI/R). SLex-OS (10 mg/kg), administered 10 min before R, significantly reduced myocardial necrosis compared with its vehicle 270 min after reperfusion (6 +/- 1% vs. 35 +/- 4% of area at risk, P < 0.01). The cardioprotection was confirmed by significantly lower plasma creatine kinase activities in SLex-OS vs. vehicle-treated cats (P < 0.01). Cardiac contractility (dP/dt max) of cats receiving SLex-OS was significantly preserved after 270 min of R (97 +/- 2% vs. 78 +/- 5% of initial, P < 0.01). Furthermore, endothelium-dependent relaxation to acetylcholine in coronary artery rings isolated from MI/R cats treated with SLex-OS was significantly preserved (73 +/- 7% vs. 22 +/- 6% vasorelaxation, P < 0.01). In vitro PMN adherence to coronary vascular endothelium after 270 min of R was significantly attenuated in the SLex-OS-treated group compared with the vehicle group (14 +/- 5 vs. 91 +/- 12 PMN/mm2, P < 0.01). Our results indicate that a SLex-OS is cardioprotective and preserves coronary endothelial function after MI/R, indicating an important role of sialyl Lewisx in PMN accumulation, endothelial dysfunction, and myocardial injury in myocardial ischemia/reperfusion.

Monocyte tethering by P-selectin regulates monocyte chemotactic protein-1 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha secretion. Signal integration and NF-kappa B translocation.

Adhesion molecules that tether circulating leukocytes to endothelial cells may also transduce or modulate outside-in signals for cellular activation, providing an initial regulatory point in the inflammatory response. Adhesion of human monocytes to P-selectin, the most rapidly expressed endothelial tethering factor, increased the secretion of monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) by the leukocytes when they were stimulated with platelet-activating factor. Increased cytokine secretion was specifically inhibited by G1, an anti-P-selectin mAb that prevents P-selectin from binding to its ligand (P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1) on myeloid cells. Moreover, tethering by P-selectin specifically enhanced nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kappa B), a transcription factor required for expression of MCP-1, TNF-alpha, and other immediate-early genes. These results demonstrate that P-selectin, through its ligands on monocytes, may locally regulate cytokine secretion in inflamed tissues.

In vivo neutralization of P-selectin protects feline heart and endothelium in myocardial ischemia and reperfusion injury.

The cardioprotective effects of an mAb to P-selectin designated mAb PB1.3 was examined in a feline model of myocardial ischemia (MI) and reperfusion. PB1.3 (1 mg/kg), administered after 80 min of ischemia (i.e., 10 min before reperfusion), significantly attenuated myocardial necrosis compared to a non-blocking mAb (NBP1.6) for P-selectin (15 +/- 3 vs 35 +/- 3% of area at risk, P < 0.01). Moreover, endothelial release of endothelium derived relaxing factor, as assessed by relaxation to acetylcholine, was also significantly preserved in ischemic-reperfused coronary arteries isolated from cats treated with mAb PB1.3 compared to mAb NBP1.6 (67 +/- 6 vs 11 +/- 3, P < 0.01). This endothelial preservation was directly related to reduced endothelial adherence of PMNs in ischemic-reperfused coronary arteries. Immunohistochemical localization of P-selectin was significantly upregulated in the cytoplasm of endothelial cells that lined coronary arteries and veins after 90 min of ischemia and 20 min of reperfusion. The principal site of intracytoplasmic expression was in venous vessels. mAb PB1.3 significantly decreased (P < 0.01) adherence of unstimulated PMNs to thrombin and histamine stimulated endothelial cells in a concentration-dependent manner in vitro. These results demonstrate that PMN adherence to endothelium by P-selectin is an important early consequence of reperfusion injury, and a specific monoclonal antibody to P-selectin exerts significant endothelial preservation and cardioprotection in myocardial ischemia and reperfusion.

Oncostatin M is a proinflammatory mediator. In vivo effects correlate with endothelial cell expression of inflammatory cytokines and adhesion molecules.

Oncostatin M is a member of the IL-6 family of cytokines that is primarily known for its effects on cell growth. Endothelial cells have an abundance of receptors for oncostatin M, and may be its primary target. We determined if oncostatin M induces a key endothelial cell function, initiation of the inflammatory response. We found that subcutaneous injection of oncostatin M in mice caused an acute inflammatory reaction. Oncostatin M in vitro stimulated: (a) polymorphonuclear leukocyte (PMN) transmigration through confluent monolayers of primary human endothelial cells; (b) biphasic PMN adhesion through rapid P-selectin expression, and delayed adhesion mediated by E-selectin synthesis; (c) intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 accumulation; and (d) the expression of PMN activators IL-6, epithelial neutrophil activating peptide-78, growth-related cytokine alpha and growth-related cytokine beta without concomitant IL-8 synthesis. The nature of the response to oncostatin M varied with concentration, suggesting high and low affinity oncostatin M receptors independently stimulated specific responses. Immunohistochemistry showed that macrophage-like cells infiltrating human aortic aneurysms expressed oncostatin M, so it is present during a chronic inflammatory reaction. Therefore, oncostatin M, but not other IL-6 family members, fulfills Koch's postulates as an inflammatory mediator. Since its effects on endothelial cells differ significantly from established mediators like TNFalpha, it may uniquely contribute to the inflammatory cycle.

Activated platelets signal chemokine synthesis by human monocytes.

Human blood monocytes adhere rapidly and for prolonged periods to activated platelets that display P-selectin, an adhesion protein that recognizes a specific ligand on leukocytes, P-selectin glycoprotein-1. We previously demonstrated that P-selectin regulates expression and secretion of cytokines by stimulated monocytes when it is presented in a purified, immobilized form or by transfected cells. Here we show that thrombin-activated platelets induce the expression and secretion of monocyte chemotactic protein-1 and IL-8 by monocytes. Enhanced monokine synthesis requires engagement of P-selectin glycoprotein-1 on the leukocyte by P-selectin on the platelet. Secretion of the chemokines is not, however, directly signaled by P-selectin; instead, tethering of the monocytes by P-selectin is required for their activation by RANTES (regulated upon activation normal T cell expressed presumed secreted), a platelet chemokine not previously known to induce immediate-early gene products in monocytes. Adhesion of monocytes to activated platelets results in nuclear translocation of p65 (RelA), a component of the NF-kappaB family of transcription factors that binds kappaB sequences in the regulatory regions of monocyte chemotactic protein-1, IL-8, and other immediate-early genes. However, expression of tissue factor, a coagulation protein that also has a kappaB sequence in the 5' regulatory region of its gene, is not induced in monocytes adherent to activated platelets. Thus, contact of monocytes with activated platelets differentially affects the expression of monocyte products. These experiments suggest that activated platelets regulate chemokine secretion by monocytes in inflammatory lesions in vivo and provide a model for the study of gene regulation in cell-cell interactions.

Vitamin C blocks inflammatory platelet-activating factor mimetics created by cigarette smoking.

Cigarette smoking within minutes induces leukocyte adhesion to the vascular wall and formation of intravascular leukocyte-platelet aggregates. We find this is inhibited by platelet-activating factor (PAF) receptor antagonists, and correlates with the accumulation of PAF-like mediators in the blood of cigarette smoke-exposed hamsters. These mediators were PAF-like lipids, formed by nonenzymatic oxidative modification of existing phospholipids, that were distinct from biosynthetic PAF. These PAF-like lipids induced isolated human monocytes and platelets to aggregate, which greatly increased their secretion of IL-8 and macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha. Both events were blocked by a PAF receptor antagonist. Similarly, blocking the PAF receptor in vivo blocked smoke-induced leukocyte aggregation and pavementing along the vascular wall. Dietary supplementation with the antioxidant vitamin C prevented the accumulation of PAF-like lipids, and it prevented cigarette smoke-induced leukocyte adhesion to the vascular wall and formation of leukocyte-platelet aggregates. This is the first in vivo demonstration of inflammatory phospholipid oxidation products and it suggests a molecular mechanism coupling cigarette smoke with rapid inflammatory changes. Inhibition of PAF-like lipid formation and their intravascular sequela by vitamin C suggests a simple dietary means to reduce smoking-related cardiovascular disease.

Retinoic acid receptor-α regulates synthetic events in human platelets.

Essentials Platelets express retinoic acid receptor (RAR)α protein, specifically binding target mRNAs. mRNAs under RARα control include MAP1LC3B2, SLAIN2, and ANGPT1. All-trans retinoic acid (atRA) releases RARα from its target mRNA. RARα expressed in human platelets exerts translational control via direct mRNA binding. SUMMARY: Background Translational control mechanisms in platelets are incompletely defined. Here, we determined whether the nuclear transcription factor RARα controls protein translational events in human platelets. Methods Isolated human platelets were treated with the pan-RAR agonist all-trans-retinoic acid (atRA). Global and targeted translational events were examined. Results Stimulation of platelets with atRA significantly increased global protein expression. RARα protein bound to a subset of platelet mRNAs, as measured by next-generation RNA-sequencing. In-depth analyses of 5' and 3'-untranslated regions of the RARα-bound mRNAs revealed consensus RARα binding sites in microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 beta 2 (MAP1LC3B2), SLAIN motif-containing protein 2 (SLAIN2) and angiopoietin-1 (ANGPT1) transcripts. When platelets were treated with atRA, binding interactions between RARα protein and mRNA for MAP1LC3B2, SLAIN2 and ANGPT1 were significantly decreased. Consistent with the release of bound RARα protein from MAP1LCB2mRNA, we observed an increase in the synthesis of MAP1LC3B2 protein. Conclusions These findings provide the first evidence that RARα, a nuclear transcriptional factor, regulates synthetic events in anucleate human platelets. They also reveal an additional non-genomic role for RARα in platelets that may have implications for the vitamin A-dependent signaling in humans.

Differential regulation of matrix metalloproteinase-9 by monocytes adherent to collagen and platelets.

Circulating monocytes adhere to platelets and matrix proteins at sites of vascular injury, where engagement of specific surface tethering molecules mediates outside-in signaling and synthesis of gene products by the leukocytes. Here we demonstrate that interaction of isolated human monocytes with collagen induces matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9; gelatinase B) synthesis by monocytes, a process that is greatly enhanced in the presence of platelets. MMP-9 is a potent matrix degrading enzyme implicated in atherosclerotic plaque rupture, aneurysm formation, and other vascular syndromes. Synthesis of MMP-9 by monocytes is tightly regulated and synergistically increased following adhesion to collagen and platelets. Adhesion to control matrix proteins alone did not result in MMP-9 protein production and, similarly, adhesion of monocytes to platelets activated with thrombin in suspension was not sufficient to induce MMP-9 synthesis in the absence of monocyte adhesion to collagen. Interruption of intercellular contact between platelets and monocytes dramatically inhibited MMP-9 synthesis. These observations demonstrate that discrete adhesion-dependent signaling pathways govern MMP-9 synthesis by monocytes. The synthesis of MMP-9 by monocytes may be critical in vascular syndromes and other pathological processes that are dependent on dysregulated cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions.

Combined variants in factor VIII and prostaglandin synthase-1 amplify hemorrhage severity across three generations of descendants.

Essentials Co-existent damaging variants are likely to cause more severe bleeding and may go undiagnosed. We determined pathogenic variants in a three-generational pedigree with excessive bleeding. Bleeding occurred with concurrent variants in prostaglandin synthase-1 (PTGS-1) and factor VIII. The PTGS-1 variant was associated with functional defects in the arachidonic acid pathway. SUMMARY: Background Inherited human variants that concurrently cause disorders of primary hemostasis and coagulation are uncommon. Nevertheless, rare cases of co-existent damaging variants are likely to cause more severe bleeding and may go undiagnosed. Objective We prospectively sought to determine pathogenic variants in a three-generational pedigree with excessive bleeding. Patients/methods Platelet number, size and light transmission aggregometry to multiple agonists were evaluated in pedigree members. Transmission electron microscopy determined platelet morphology and granule content. Thromboxane release studies and light transmission aggregometry in the presence or absence of prostaglandin G2 assessed specific functional defects in the arachidonic acid pathway. Whole exome sequencing (WES) and targeted nucleotide sequence analysis identified potentially deleterious variants. Results Pedigree members with excessive bleeding had impaired platelet aggregation with arachidonic acid, epinephrine and low-dose ADP, as well as reduced platelet thromboxane B2 release. Impaired platelet aggregation in response to 2MesADP was rescued with prostaglandin G2 , a prostaglandin intermediate downstream of prostaglandin synthase-1 (PTGS-1) that aids in the production of thromboxane. WES identified a non-synonymous variant in the signal peptide of PTGS-1 (rs3842787; c.50C>T; p.Pro17Leu) that completely co-segregated with disease phenotype. A variant in the F8 gene causing hemophilia A (rs28935203; c.5096A>T; p.Y1699F) was also identified. Individuals with both variants had more severe bleeding manifestations than characteristic of mild hemophilia A alone. Conclusion We provide the first report of co-existing variants in both F8 and PTGS-1 genes in a three-generation pedigree. The PTGS-1 variant was associated with specific functional defects in the arachidonic acid pathway and more severe hemorrhage.

Non-genomic activities of retinoic acid receptor alpha control actin cytoskeletal events in human platelets.

UNLABELLED: Essentials Platelets employ proteins/signaling pathways traditionally thought reserved for nuclear niche. We determined retinoic-acid-receptor alpha (RARα) expression and function in human platelets. RARα/actin-related protein-2/3 complex (Arp2/3) interact via non-genomic signaling in platelets. RARα regulates Arp2/3-mediated actin cytoskeletal dynamics and platelet spreading. SUMMARY: Background Platelets utilize proteins and pathways classically reserved for the nuclear niche. Methods We determined whether human platelets express retinoic-acid-receptor family members, traditionally thought of as nuclear transcription factors, and deciphered the function of RARα. Results We found that RARα is robustly expressed in human platelets and megakaryocytes and interacts directly with actin-related protein-2/3 complex (Arp2/3) subunit 5 (Arp2/3s5). Arp2/3s5 co-localized with RARα in situ and regulated platelet cytoskeletal processes. The RARα ligand all-trans retinoic acid (atRA) disrupted RARα-Arp2/3 interactions. When isolated human platelets were treated with atRA, rapid cytoskeletal events (e.g. platelet spreading) were inhibited. In addition, when platelets were cultured for 18 h in the presence of atRA, actin-dependent morphological changes (e.g. extended cell body formation) were similarly inhibited. Using in vitro actin branching assays, RARα and Arp2/3-regulated complex actin branch formation was demonstrated. Consistent with inhibition of cytoskeletal processes in platelets, atRA, when added to this branching assay, resulted in dysregulated actin branching. Conclusion Our findings identify a previously unknown mechanism by which RARα regulates Arp2/3-mediated actin cytoskeletal dynamics through a non-genomic signaling pathway. These findings have broad implications in both nucleated and anucleate cells, where actin cytoskeletal events regulate cell morphology, movement and division.

Time course of coronary vascular endothelial adhesion molecule expression during reperfusion of the ischemic feline myocardium.

The time course of endothelial P-selectin, ICAM-1, and E-selectin expression was studied in a feline model of myocardial ischemia and reperfusion. Cats were subjected to 90 min of myocardial ischemia followed by 0, 10, 20, 60, 150, or 270 min of reperfusion. At the end of reperfusion, the coronary vasculature was examined immunohistochemically to localize monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) PB1.3, RR1/1, and Cy1787 directed against P-selectin, ICAM-1, and E-selectin, respectively. Immunohistochemical localization for P-selectin, recognized by mAb PB1.3, was maximally expressed 20 min after reperfusion in 60 +/- 6% of coronary venules (P < 0.05 compared to non-reperfused controls), and covered 59 +/- 3% of the endothelial cell perimeter of immunostained coronary venules. Immunolocalization of mAb PB1.3 gradually declined at 60, 150, and 270 min of reperfusion. Immunohistochemical localization of mAb RR1/1 (anti-ICAM-1) in endothelial cells of coronary venules was observed to a modest extent in non-ischemic myocardium and at 10, 20, and 60 min of reperfusion, but was significantly increased following 150 and 270 min of reperfusion (P < 0.05 compared non-reperfused controls). At 270 min post-reperfusion, mAb RR1/1 was seen in 50 +/- 4% of coronary venules. Endothelial immunolocalization of mAb Cy1787 (anti-E-selectin) was only observed in 13 +/- 1 and 14 +/- 3% of coronary venules after 150 and 270 min of reperfusion, respectively, suggesting that pronounced expression of E-selectin does not occur within 270 min after reperfusion. These results demonstrate sequential expression of three major endothelial cell adherence molecules in situ following myocardial ischemia and reperfusion. The timing of endothelial cell expressed P-selectin and ICAM-1 could coordinate neutrophil trafficking during the early stages of reperfusion.

Quantification of neutrophil migration following myocardial ischemia and reperfusion in cats and dogs.

Endothelial cell dysfunction and cardiac myocyte injury resulting from ischemia and reperfusion have been associated with accumulation of neutrophils in the myocardium. To determine whether the accumulation is related primarily to intravascular sequestration or extravascular infiltration of neutrophils during the early period of reperfusion, we morphometrically quantified the tissue distribution of neutrophils in cats and dogs. At the end of the reperfusion period, the base of the heart was cross-clamped to preserve neutrophil location at the moment of death. Point-counting methods were used to determine the distribution of neutrophils inside and outside coronary arterioles and venules (< or = 100 microns in diameter) as well as coronary capillaries 5-10 microns in diameter in 0.5-microns-thick, plastic-embedded sections. Ischemia-reperfusion resulted in a threefold increase in neutrophil number in the lumen of arterioles and venules at 60 min of reperfusion and up to a sevenfold increase at 270 min of reperfusion (P < .05) compared to time-matched control nonischemic hearts. The ratio of intravascular neutrophils in venules to arterioles was 2:1. Intracapillary neutrophils increased, but not significantly, at 60 min of reperfusion. At 270 min of reperfusion, intracapillary neutrophils increased 11-fold (P < .05). The percentage of total neutrophils that accumulated outside arterioles and venules in cat hearts was 8% at 60 min of reperfusion (not significant, NS) and 28% at 270 min of reperfusion (P < .05). In dog hearts, the percentages were 26% (NS) and 44% (P < .05), respectively. The percentage of total neutrophils that accumulated outside capillaries was < 6% in both cat and dog hearts (NS). The combination of rapid intravascular sequestration, delayed extravascular infiltration, and low incidence of neutrophil-cardiac myocyte contact in situ in these two species suggests that neutrophil-mediated cardiac myocyte injury during early reperfusion may initially depend on diffusion of inflammatory mediators and subsequently require direct contact between neutrophils and cardiac myocytes.

Regulation of the genetic code in megakaryocytes and platelets.

Platelets are generated from nucleated precursors referred to as megakaryocytes. The formation of platelets is one of the most elegant and unique developmental processes in eukaryotes. Because they enter the circulation without nuclei, platelets are often considered simple, non-complex cells that have limited functions beyond halting blood flow. However, emerging evidence over the past decade demonstrates that platelets are more sophisticated than previously considered. Platelets carry a rich repertoire of messenger RNAs (mRNAs), microRNAs (miRNAs), and proteins that contribute to primary (adhesion, aggregation, secretion) and alternative (immune regulation, RNA transfer, translation) functions. It is also becoming increasingly clear that the 'genetic code' of platelets changes with race, genetic disorders, or disease. Changes in the 'genetic code' can occur at multiple points including megakaryocyte development, platelet formation, or in circulating platelets. This review focuses on regulation of the 'genetic code' in megakaryocytes and platelets and its potential contribution to health and disease.

The evolving role of platelets in inflammation.

Platelets are small in size and simple in structure. Nevertheless, these anucleate cytoplasts utilize complex molecular systems to regulate a variety of biological functions. Here we review evolutionary paths, traditional roles, and previously unrecognized biological capacities of platelets that interface thrombosis with inflammation and potentially identify new roles in inflammatory diseases.

Dissociation of the ventilatory and lactate thresholds following caffeine ingestion.

Caffeine ingestion prior to the start of exercise has been shown to have an effect on ventilatory parameters and substrate utilization. Changes in either substrate utilization or ventilatory parameters may influence the determination of the lactate threshold (LT) and/or the ventilatory threshold (VT). Therefore, it was the purpose of this investigation to determine whether the VT and LT occur at similar metabolic rates and what effect caffeine ingestion will have on these two measures. Ten male subjects completed two maximal exercise bouts on the treadmill using a single blind procedure. One trial was performed 45 min after the ingestion of caffeine citrate (CC) in an amount equal to 7.0 mg of anhydrous caffeine.kg-1 body weight. The second trial was performed 45 min after the ingestion of a gelatin powdered placebo (P). Ventilatory parameters were monitored on a breath-by-breath basis, and blood for lactate determination was obtained from an antecubital vein every minute. Maximal oxygen consumption did not differ significantly between the CC (60.3 +/- 5.2 ml.kg-1.min-1) and P (59.7 +/- 5.6 ml.kg-1.min-1) trials. Oxygen consumption (VO2) values during the P trial at the VT (40.2 +/- 6.1 ml.kg-1.min-1) and the LT (38.6 +/- 3.3 ml.kg-1.min-1) were not significantly different (P less than 0.05). During the CC trial, VO2 values at the VT (44.4 +/- 6.6 ml.kg-1.min-1) and the LT (39.7 +/- 5.8 ml.kg-1.min-1) were significantly different. When comparing the VO2 at the LTs between the CC and P trials, there was no significant difference. There was, however, a significant difference in VO2 at the VTs when comparing the two trials. These data demonstrate a dissociation between the VT and LT following caffeine ingestion and suggest that the use of the VT as an indicator of the LT may be inappropriate following ingestion of moderate dosages of caffeine.

Effects of bat composition, grip firmness, and impact location on postimpact ball velocity.

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the effects of bat composition (aluminum and wooden), impact location [center of percussion (COP), center of gravity (COG), and end of the bat (E)], and grip firmness [tight (T) and no tension (NT)] on postimpact ball velocity. With the bats placed alternately in NT and T conditions, baseballs were delivered at a speed of 27.1 m.s-1 from a pitching machine positioned 1.5 m from the bat. High-speed photography (400 fps) was performed using a Locam camera positioned 7.54 m from and perpendicular to the principal plane of ball movement. A three-way ANCOVA revealed significant (P less than 0.01) differences in postimpact ball velocity between the three impact locations, with the COP yielding the greatest values, followed by the COG and E. Moreover, there was a significant (P less than 0.01) grip vs bat interaction. A simple-effects procedure revealed the following results: 1) the T grip produced greater (P less than 0.01) velocities than the NT grip across the aluminum (Al) bat; 2) there was no difference (P greater than 0.01) between the T and NT grips across the wooden (W) bat; 3) the W bat produced greater (P less than 0.01) velocities than the Al bat across the NT grip; and 4) there was no difference (P greater than 0.01) between the Al and W bats across the T grip.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

The effects of testosterone on lipids and eicosanoids in cynomolgus monkeys.

The effect of testosterone administration on plasma lipoproteins and eicosanoids was studied in 24 male cynomolgus monkeys. We hypothesized that elevated plasma testosterone would unfavorably alter plasma lipids as well as thromboxane A2 (TxA2) and prostacyclin (PGI2), two eicosanoids that have been linked to the increased incidence of atherosclerosis, myocardial ischemia, and thrombosis. To test our hypothesis, half of the monkeys (N = 12) were subjected to 10 wk of testosterone treatment, whereas the remaining monkeys (N = 12) received a sesame oil vehicle. The plasma concentrations of thromboxane B2 (TxB2) and 6-keto-PGF1 alpha, the stable metabolites of TxA2 and PGI2, respectively, were determined. Additionally, assays were conducted on total cholesterol (TC), high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and triglycerides (TG). Distribution of the HDL subfraction protein was measured by gradient gel electrophoresis. All monkeys exhibited significant increases in TC (P less than 0.001) and low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) (P less than 0.001); however, monkeys who received testosterone also displayed significant increases in TxB2 (P less than 0.03) and decreases in HDL-C (P less than 0.03) compared with control monkeys. There was a trend in the HDL-C subfraction data, indicating that testosterone treatment may be associated with a decrease in the larger HDL2b subfraction and a corresponding increase in HDL3c. These results demonstrate that exogenous testosterone adversely alters cardiovascular risk profiles by increasing TXB2 production and decreasing HDL-C. Athletes who use testosterone as an anabolic androgenic steroid may have an increased risk for coronary heart disease.