CB1 Cannabinoid Receptor Signaling and Biased Signaling.

The CB1 cannabinoid receptor is a G-protein coupled receptor highly expressed throughout the central nervous system that is a promising target for the treatment of various disorders, including anxiety, pain, and neurodegeneration. Despite the wide therapeutic potential of CB1, the development of drug candidates is hindered by adverse effects, rapid tolerance development, and abuse potential. Ligands that produce biased signaling-the preferential activation of a signaling transducer in detriment of another-have been proposed as a strategy to dissociate therapeutic and adverse effects for a variety of G-protein coupled receptors. However, biased signaling at the CB1 receptor is poorly understood due to a lack of strongly biased agonists. Here, we review studies that have investigated the biased signaling profile of classical cannabinoid agonists and allosteric ligands, searching for a potential therapeutic advantage of CB1 biased signaling in different pathological states. Agonist and antagonist bound structures of CB1 and proposed mechanisms of action of biased allosteric modulators are used to discuss a putative molecular mechanism for CB1 receptor activation and biased signaling. Current studies suggest that allosteric binding sites on CB1 can be explored to yield biased ligands that favor or hinder conformational changes important for biased signaling.

Identification of Crucial Amino Acid Residues Involved in Agonist Signaling at the GPR55 Receptor.

GPR55 is a newly deorphanized class A G-protein-coupled receptor that has been implicated in inflammatory pain, neuropathic pain, metabolic disorder, bone development, and cancer. Few potent GPR55 ligands have been identified to date. This is largely due to an absence of information about salient features of GPR55, such as residues important for signaling and residues implicated in the GPR55 signaling cascade. The goal of this work was to identify residues that are key for the signaling of the GPR55 endogenous ligand, l-α-lysophosphatidylinositol (LPI), as well as the signaling of the GPR55 agonist, ML184 {CID 2440433, 3-[4-(2,3-dimethylphenyl)piperazine-1-carbonyl]-N,N-dimethyl-4-pyrrolidin-1-ylbenzenesulfonamide}. Serum response element (SRE) and serum response factor (SRF) luciferase assays were used as readouts for studying LPI and ML184 signaling at the GPR55 mutants. A GPR55 R* model based on the recent δ-opioid receptor (DOR) crystal structure was used to interpret the resultant mutation data. Two residues were found to be crucial for agonist signaling at GPR55, K2.60 and E3.29, suggesting that these residues form the primary interaction site for ML184 and LPI at GPR55. Y3.32F, H(170)F, and F6.55A/L mutation results suggested that these residues are part of the orthosteric binding site for ML184, while Y3.32F and H(170)F mutation results suggest that these two residues are part of the LPI binding pocket. Y3.32L, M3.36A, and F6.48A mutation results suggest the importance of a Y3.32/M3.36/F6.48 cluster in the GPR55 signaling cascade. C(10)A and C(260)A mutations suggest that these residues form a second disulfide bridge in the extracellular domain of GPR55, occluding ligand extracellular entry in the TMH1-TMH7 region of GPR55. Taken together, these results provide the first set of discrete information about GPR55 residues important for LPI and ML184 signaling and for GPR55 activation. This information should aid in the rational design of next-generation GPR55 ligands and the creation of the first high-affinity GPR55 radioligand, a tool that is sorely needed in the field.

N-arachidonoyl glycine, another endogenous agonist of GPR55.

Interest in lipoamino acids as endogenous modulators of G-protein coupled receptors has escalated due to their involvement in a variety of physiologic processes. In particular, a role for these amino acid conjugates has emerged in the endocannabinoid system. The study presented herein investigated the effects of N-arachidonoyl glycine (NAGly) on a candidate endocannabinoid receptor, GPR55. Our novel findings reveal that NAGly induces concentration dependent increases in calcium mobilization and mitogen-activated protein kinase activities in HAGPR55/CHO cells. These increases were attenuated by the selective GPR55 antagonist ML193 (N-[4-[[(3,4-Dimethyl-5-isoxazolyl)amino]sulfonyl]phenyl]-6,8-dimethyl-2-(2-pyridinyl)-4-quinolinecarboxamide), supporting receptor mediated signaling. To our knowledge this is the first report identifying GPR55 as a target of the endogenous lipoamino acid, NAGly.

Structure-activity relationships of benzothiazole GPR35 antagonists.

The first structure-activity relationships for a benzothiazole scaffold acting as an antagonist at GPR35 is presented. Analogues were designed based on a lead compound that was previously determined to have selective activity as a GPR35 antagonist. The synthetic route was modular in nature to independently explore the role of the middle and both ends of the scaffold. The activities of the analogues illustrate the importance of all three segments of the compound.

Novel analogs of PSNCBAM-1 as allosteric modulators of cannabinoid CB1 receptor.

In this work, we explored the molecular framework of the known CB1R allosteric modulator PSNCBAM-1 with the aim to generate new bioactive analogs and to deepen the structure-activity relationships of this type of compounds. In particular, the introduction of a NH group between the pyridine ring and the phenyl nucleus generated the amino-phenyl-urea derivative SN15b that behaved as a positive allosteric modulator (PAM), increasing the CB1R binding affinity of the orthosteric ligand CP55,940. The functional activity was evaluated using serum response element (SRE) assay, which assesses the CB1R-dependent activation of the MAPK/ERK signaling pathway. SN15b and the biphenyl-urea analog SC4a significantly inhibited the response produced by CP55,940 in the low µM range, thus behaving as negative allosteric modulators (NAMs). The new derivatives presented here provide further insights about the modulation of CB1R binding and functional activity by allosteric ligands.

Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of GPR55 agonists.

GPR55, a G protein-coupled receptor, is an attractive target to alleviate inflammatory and neuropathic pain and treat osteoporosis and cancer. Identifying a potent and selective ligand will aid to further establish the specific physiological roles and pharmacology of the receptor. Towards this goal, a targeted library of 22 compounds was synthesized in a modular fashion to obtain structure-activity relationship information. The general route consisted of coupling a variety of p-aminophenyl sulfonamides to isothiocyanates to form acylthioureas. For the synthesis of a known naphthyl ethyl alcohol motif, route modification led to a shorter and more efficient process. The 22 analogues were analyzed for their ability to serve as agonists at GPR55 and valuable information for both ends of the molecule was ascertained.

Cocaine inhibits store-operated Ca2+ entry in brain microvascular endothelial cells: critical role for sigma-1 receptors.

Sigma-1 receptor (Sig-1R) is an intracellular chaperone protein with many ligands, located at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Binding of cocaine to Sig-1R has previously been found to modulate endothelial functions. In the present study, we show that cocaine dramatically inhibits store-operated Ca(2+) entry (SOCE), a Ca(2+) influx mechanism promoted by depletion of intracellular Ca(2+) stores, in rat brain microvascular endothelial cells (RBMVEC). Using either Sig-1R shRNA or pharmacological inhibition with the unrelated Sig-1R antagonists BD-1063 and NE-100, we show that cocaine-induced SOCE inhibition is dependent on Sig-1R. In addition to revealing new insight into fundamental mechanisms of cocaine-induced changes in endothelial function, these studies indicate an unprecedented role for Sig-1R as a SOCE inhibitor.

The Two-pore channel (TPC) interactome unmasks isoform-specific roles for TPCs in endolysosomal morphology and cell pigmentation.

The two-pore channels (TPC1 and TPC2) belong to an ancient family of intracellular ion channels expressed in the endolysosomal system. Little is known about how regulatory inputs converge to modulate TPC activity, and proposed activation mechanisms are controversial. Here, we compiled a proteomic characterization of the human TPC interactome, which revealed that TPCs complex with many proteins involved in Ca(2+) homeostasis, trafficking, and membrane organization. Among these interactors, TPCs were resolved to scaffold Rab GTPases and regulate endomembrane dynamics in an isoform-specific manner. TPC2, but not TPC1, caused a proliferation of endolysosomal structures, dysregulating intracellular trafficking, and cellular pigmentation. These outcomes required both TPC2 and Rab activity, as well as their interactivity, because TPC2 mutants that were inactive, or rerouted away from their endogenous expression locale, or deficient in Rab binding, failed to replicate these outcomes. Nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NAADP)-evoked Ca(2+) release was also impaired using either a Rab binding-defective TPC2 mutant or a Rab inhibitor. These data suggest a fundamental role for the ancient TPC complex in trafficking that holds relevance for lysosomal proliferative scenarios observed in disease.

Absence of ALOX5 gene prevents stress-induced memory deficits, synaptic dysfunction and tauopathy in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.

Although the initial events of Alzheimer's disease (AD) are still not known, it is clear that the disease in its sporadic form results from the combination of genetic and environmental risk factors. Among the latter, behavioral stress has been increasingly recognized as an important factor in the propagation of AD. However, the mechanisms underlying this modulation remain to be fully investigated. Since stress up-regulates the ALOX5 gene product, 5-lipoxygenase (5LO), herein we investigated its role in modulating stress-dependent development of the AD phenotype. To reach this goal, triple transgenic (3xTg) mice and 3xTg genetically deficient for 5LO were investigated after undergoing a restraint/isolation paradigm. In the present paper, we found that 28 days of restraint/isolation stress worsened tau phosphorylation and solubility, increased glycogen synthase kinase 3ß activity, compromised long-term potentiation and impaired fear-conditioned memory recall in 3xTg animals, but not in 3xTg animals lacking 5LO (3xTg/5LO-/-). These results highlight the novel functional role that the ALOX5 gene plays in the development of the biochemical, electrophysiological and behavioral sequelae of stress in the AD context. They provide critical support that this gene and its expressed protein are viable therapeutic targets to prevent the onset or delay the progression of AD in individuals exposed to this risk factor.

Design, synthesis, and analysis of antagonists of GPR55: Piperidine-substituted 1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-ones.

A series of 1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-ones was synthesized and tested for activity as antagonists at GPR55 in cellular beta-arrestin redistribution assays. The synthesis was designed to be modular in nature so that a sufficient number of analogues could be rapidly accessed to explore initial structure-activity relationships. The design of analogues was guided by the docking of potential compounds into a model of the inactive form of GPR55. The results of the assays were used to learn more about the binding pocket of GPR55. With this oxadiazolone scaffold, it was determined that modification of the aryl group adjacent to the oxadiazolone ring was often detrimental and that the distal cyclopropane was beneficial for activity. These results will guide further exploration of this receptor.

The Lysophosphatidylinositol Receptor GPR55 Modulates Pain Perception in the Periaqueductal Gray.

Emerging evidence indicates the involvement of GPR55 and its proposed endogenous ligand, lysophosphatidylinositol (LPI), in nociception, yet their role in central pain processing has not been explored. Using Ca(2+) imaging, we show here that LPI elicits concentration-dependent and GPR55-mediated increases in intracellular Ca(2+) levels in dissociated rat periaqueductal gray (PAG) neurons, which express GPR55 mRNA. This effect is mediated by Ca(2+) release from the endoplasmic reticulum via inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors and by Ca(2+) entry via P/Q-type of voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels. Moreover, LPI depolarizes PAG neurons and upon intra-PAG microinjection, reduces nociceptive threshold in the hot-plate test. Both these effects are dependent on GPR55 activation, because they are abolished by pretreatment with ML-193 [N-(4-(N-(3,4-dimethylisoxazol-5-yl)sulfamoyl)-phenyl)-6,8-dimethyl-2-(pyridin-2-yl)quinoline-4-carboxamide], a selective GPR55 antagonist. Thus, we provide the first pharmacological evidence that GPR55 activation at central levels is pronociceptive, suggesting that interfering with GPR55 signaling in the PAG may promote analgesia.

Crucial positively charged residues for ligand activation of the GPR35 receptor.

GPR35 is a G protein-coupled receptor expressed in the immune, gastrointestinal, and nervous systems in gastric carcinomas and is implicated in heart failure and pain perception. We investigated residues in GPR35 responsible for ligand activation and the receptor structure in the active state. GPR35 contains numerous positively charged amino acids that face into the binding pocket that cluster in two distinct receptor regions, TMH3-4-5-6 and TMH1-2-7. Computer modeling implicated TMH3-4-5-6 for activation by the GPR35 agonists zaprinast and pamoic acid. Mutation results for the TMH1-2-7 region of GPR35 showed no change in ligand efficacies at the K1.32A, R2.65A, R7.33A, and K7.40A mutants. However, mutation of arginine residues in the TMH3-4-5-6 region (R4.60, R6.58, R3.36, R(164), and R(167) in the EC2 loop) had effects on signaling for one or both agonists tested. R4.60A resulted in a total ablation of agonist-induced activation in both the ß-arrestin trafficking and ERK1/2 activation assays. R6.58A increased the potency of zaprinast 30-fold in the pERK assay. The R(167)A mutant decreased the potency of pamoic acid in the ß-arrestin trafficking assay. The R(164)A and R(164)L mutants decreased potencies of both agonists. Similar trends for R6.58A and R(167)A were observed in calcium responses. Computer modeling showed that the R6.58A mutant has additional interactions with zaprinast. R3.36A did not express on the cell surface but was trapped in the cytoplasm. The lack of surface expression of R3.36A was rescued by a GPR35 antagonist, CID2745687. These results clearly show that R4.60, R(164), R(167), and R6.58 play crucial roles in the agonist initiated activation of GPR35.

Allosteric modulation of a cannabinoid G protein-coupled receptor: binding site elucidation and relationship to G protein signaling.

The cannabinoid 1 (CB1) allosteric modulator, 5-chloro-3-ethyl-1H-indole-2-carboxylic acid [2-(4-piperidin-1-yl-phenyl)-ethyl]-amide) (ORG27569), has the paradoxical effect of increasing the equilibrium binding of [(3)H](-)-3-[2-hydroxyl-4-(1,1-dimethylheptyl)phenyl]-4-[3-hydroxylpropyl]cyclohexan-1-ol (CP55,940, an orthosteric agonist) while at the same time decreasing its efficacy (in G protein-mediated signaling). ORG27569 also decreases basal signaling, acting as an inverse agonist for the G protein-mediated signaling pathway. In ligand displacement assays, ORG27569 can displace the CB1 antagonist/inverse agonist, N-(piperidiny-1-yl)-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-4-methyl-1H-pyrazole-3-carboxamide(SR141716A). The goal of this work was to identify the binding site of ORG27569 at CB1. To this end, we used computation, synthesis, mutation, and functional studies to identify the ORG27569-binding site in the CB1 TMH3-6-7 region. This site is consistent with the results of K3.28(192)A, F3.36(200)A, W5.43(279)A, W6.48(356)A, and F3.25(189)A mutation studies, which revealed the ORG27569-binding site overlaps with our previously determined binding site of SR141716A but extends extracellularly. Additionally, we identified a key electrostatic interaction between the ORG27569 piperidine ring nitrogen and K3.28(192) that is important for ORG27569 to act as an inverse agonist. At this allosteric site, ORG27569 promotes an intermediate conformation of the CB1 receptor, explaining ORG27569's ability to increase equilibrium binding of CP55,940. This site also explains ORG27569's ability to antagonize the efficacy of CP55,940 in three complementary ways. 1) ORG27569 sterically blocks movements of the second extracellular loop that have been linked to receptor activation. 2) ORG27569 sterically blocks a key electrostatic interaction between the third extracellular loop residue Lys-373 and D2.63(176). 3) ORG27569 packs against TMH6, sterically hindering movements of this helix that have been shown to be important for receptor activation.

G protein-coupled estrogen receptor-mediated effects on cytosolic calcium and nanomechanics in brain microvascular endothelial cells.

G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) is a relatively recently identified non-nuclear estrogen receptor, expressed in several tissues, including brain and blood vessels. The mechanisms elicited by GPER activation in brain microvascular endothelial cells are incompletely understood. The purpose of this work was to assess the effects of GPER activation on cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration, [Ca(2+)](i), nitric oxide production, membrane potential and cell nanomechanics in rat brain microvascular endothelial cells (RBMVEC). Extracellular but not intracellular administration of G-1, a selective GPER agonist, or extracellular administration of 17-ß-estradiol and tamoxifen, increased [Ca(2+)](i) in RBMVEC. The effect of G-1 on [Ca(2+)](i) was abolished in Ca(2+) -free saline or in the presence of a L-type Ca(2+) channel blocker. G-1 increased nitric oxide production in RBMVEC; the effect was prevented by NG-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester. G-1 elicited membrane hyperpolarization that was abolished by the antagonists of small and intermediate-conductance Ca(2+) -activated K(+) channels, apamin, and charibdotoxin. GPER-mediated responses were sensitive to G-36, a GPER antagonist. In addition, atomic force microscopy studies revealed that G-1 increased the modulus of elasticity, indicative of cytoskeletal changes and increase in RBMVEC stiffness. Our results unravel the mechanisms underlying GPER-mediated effects in RBMVEC with implications for the effect of estrogen on cerebral microvasculature. Activation of the G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) in rat brain microvascular endothelial cells (RBMVEC) increases [Ca(2+)](i) by promoting Ca(2+) influx. The increase in [Ca(2+)](i) leads to membrane hyperpolarization, nitric oxide (NO) production, and to cytoskeletal changes and increased cell stiffness. Our results unravel the mechanisms underlying GPER-mediated effects in RBMVEC with implications for the effect of estrogen on cerebral microvasculature.

Differential activation of intracellular versus plasmalemmal CB2 cannabinoid receptors.

The therapeutic and psychoactive properties of cannabinoids have long been recognized. The type 2 receptor for cannabinoids (CB2) has emerged as an important therapeutic target in several pathologies, as it mediates beneficial effects of cannabinoids while having little if any psychotropic activity. Difficulties associated with the development of CB2-based therapeutic agents have been related to its intricate pharmacology, including the species specificity and functional selectivity of the CB2-initiated responses. We postulated that a plasmalemmal or subcellular location of the receptor may contribute to the differential signaling pathways initiated by its activation. To differentiate between these two, we used extracellular and intracellular administration of CB2 ligands and concurrent calcium imaging in CB2-expressing U2OS cells. We found that extracellular administration of anandamide was ineffective, whereas 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG) and WIN55,212-2 triggered delayed, CB2-dependent Ca(2+) responses that were Gq protein-mediated. When microinjected, all agonists elicited fast, transient, and dose-dependent elevations in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration upon activation of Gq-coupled CB2 receptors. The CB2 dependency was confirmed by the sensitivity to AM630, a selective CB2 antagonist, and by the unresponsiveness of untransfected U2OS cells to 2-AG, anandamide, or WIN55,212-2. Moreover, we provide functional and morphological evidence that CB2 receptors are localized at the endolysosomes, while their activation releases Ca(2+) from inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-sensitive- and acidic-like Ca(2+) stores. Our results support the functionality of intracellular CB2 receptors and their ability to couple to Gq and elicit Ca(2+) signaling. These findings add further complexity to CB2 receptor pharmacology and argue for careful consideration of receptor localization in the development of CB2-based therapeutic agents.

Differential activation of cultured neonatal cardiomyocytes by plasmalemmal versus intracellular G protein-coupled receptor 55.

The L-α-lysophosphatidylinositol (LPI)-sensitive receptor GPR55 is coupled to Ca(2+) signaling. Low levels of GPR55 expression in the heart have been reported. Similar to other G protein-coupled receptors involved in cardiac function, GPR55 may be expressed both at the sarcolemma and intracellularly. Thus, to explore the role of GPR55 in cardiomyocytes, we used calcium and voltage imaging and extracellular administration or intracellular microinjection of GPR55 ligands. We provide the first evidence that, in cultured neonatal ventricular myocytes, LPI triggers distinct signaling pathways via GPR55, depending on receptor localization. GPR55 activation at the sarcolemma elicits, on one hand, Ca(2+) entry via L-type Ca(2+) channels and, on the other, inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-dependent Ca(2+) release. The latter signal is further amplified by Ca(2+)-induced Ca(2+) release via ryanodine receptors. Conversely, activation of GPR55 at the membrane of intracellular organelles promotes Ca(2+) release from acidic-like Ca(2+) stores via the endolysosomal NAADP-sensitive two-pore channels. This response is similarly enhanced by Ca(2+)-induced Ca(2+) release via ryanodine receptors. Extracellularly applied LPI produces Ca(2+)-independent membrane depolarization, whereas the Ca(2+) signal induced by intracellular microinjection of LPI converges to hyperpolarization of the sarcolemma. Collectively, our findings point to GPR55 as a novel G protein-coupled receptor regulating cardiac function at two cellular sites. This work may serve as a platform for future studies exploring the potential of GPR55 as a therapeutic target in cardiac disorders.

Identification of the GPR55 antagonist binding site using a novel set of high-potency GPR55 selective ligands.

GPR55 is a class A G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that has been implicated in inflammatory pain, neuropathic pain, metabolic disorder, bone development, and cancer. Initially deorphanized as a cannabinoid receptor, GPR55 has been shown to be activated by non-cannabinoid ligands such as l-α-lysophosphatidylinositol (LPI). While there is a growing body of evidence of physiological and pathophysiological roles for GPR55, the paucity of specific antagonists has limited its study. In collaboration with the Molecular Libraries Probe Production Centers Network initiative, we identified a series of GPR55 antagonists using a ß-arrestin, high-throughput, high-content screen of ~300000 compounds. This screen yielded novel, GPR55 antagonist chemotypes with IC50 values in the range of 0.16-2.72 µM [Heynen-Genel, S., et al. (2010) Screening for Selective Ligands for GPR55: Antagonists (ML191, ML192, ML193) (Bookshelf ID NBK66153; PMID entry 22091481)]. Importantly, many of the GPR55 antagonists were completely selective, with no agonism or antagonism against GPR35, CB1, or CB2 up to 20 µM. Using a model of the GPR55 inactive state, we studied the binding of an antagonist series that emerged from this screen. These studies suggest that GPR55 antagonists possess a head region that occupies a horizontal binding pocket extending into the extracellular loop region, a central ligand portion that fits vertically in the receptor binding pocket and terminates with a pendant aromatic or heterocyclic ring that juts out. Both the region that extends extracellularly and the pendant ring are features associated with antagonism. Taken together, our results provide a set of design rules for the development of second-generation GPR55 selective antagonists.

CB(1) receptor allosteric modulators display both agonist and signaling pathway specificity.

We have previously identified allosteric modulators of the cannabinoid CB(1) receptor (Org 27569, PSNCBAM-1) that display a contradictory pharmacological profile: increasing the specific binding of the CB(1) receptor agonist [(3)H]CP55940 but producing a decrease in CB(1) receptor agonist efficacy. Here we investigated the effect one or both compounds in a broad range of signaling endpoints linked to CB(1) receptor activation. We assessed the effect of these compounds on CB(1) receptor agonist-induced [(35)S]GTPγS binding, inhibition, and stimulation of forskolin-stimulated cAMP production, phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK), and ß-arrestin recruitment. We also investigated the effect of these allosteric modulators on CB(1) agonist binding kinetics. Both compounds display ligand dependence, being significantly more potent as modulators of CP55940 signaling as compared with WIN55212 and having little effect on [(3)H]WIN55212 binding. Org 27569 displays biased antagonism whereby it inhibits: agonist-induced guanosine 5'-O-(3-[(35)S]thio)triphosphate ([(35)S]GTPγS) binding, simulation (Gα(s)-mediated), and inhibition (Gα(i)-mediated) of cAMP production and ß-arrestin recruitment. In contrast, it acts as an enhancer of agonist-induced ERK phosphorylation. Alone, the compound can act also as an allosteric agonist, increasing cAMP production and ERK phosphorylation. We find that in both saturation and kinetic-binding experiments, the Org 27569 and PSNCBAM-1 appeared to influence only orthosteric ligand maximum occupancy rather than affinity. The data indicate that the allosteric modulators share a common mechanism whereby they increase available high-affinity CB(1) agonist binding sites. The receptor conformation stabilized by the allosterics appears to induce signaling and also selectively traffics orthosteric agonist signaling via the ERK phosphorylation pathway.

Novel insights into CB1 cannabinoid receptor signaling: a key interaction identified between the extracellular-3 loop and transmembrane helix 2.

Activation of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor (CB1) is modulated by aspartate residue D2.63(176) in transmembrane helix (TMH) 2. Interestingly, D2.63 does not affect the affinity for ligand binding at the CB1 receptor. Studies in class A G protein-coupled receptors have suggested an ionic interaction between residues of TMH2 and 7. In this report, modeling studies identified residue K373 in the extracellular-3 (EC-3) loop in charged interactions with D2.63. We investigated this possibility by performing reciprocal mutations and biochemical studies. D2.63(176)A, K373A, D2.63(176)A-K373A, and the reciprocal mutant with the interacting residues juxtaposed D2.63(176)K-K373D were characterized using radioligand binding and guanosine 5'-3-O-(thio)triphosphate functional assays. None of the mutations resulted in a significant change in the binding affinity of N-(piperidiny-1-yl)-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-(2,4-dichloro-phenyl)-4-methyl-1H-pyrazole-3-carboxamide hydrochloride (SR141716A) or (-)-3cis -[2-hydroxyl-4-(1,1-dimethyl-heptyl)phenyl]-trans-4-[3-hydroxyl-propyl] cyclohexan-1-ol (CP55,940). Modeling studies indicated that binding-site interactions and energies of interaction for CP55,940 were similar between wild-type and mutant receptors. However, the signaling of CP55,940, and (R)-(+)-[2,3-dihydro-5-methyl-3-[(4-morpholinyl)methyl]-pyrrolo[1,2,3-de]-1,4-benzoxazin-6-yl](1-naphthalenyl)-methanone mesylate (WIN55,212-2) was impaired at the D2.63(176)A-K373A and the single-alanine mutants. In contrast, the reciprocal D2.63(176)K-K373D mutant regained function for both CP55,940 and WIN55,212-2. Computational results indicate that the D2.63(176)-K373 ionic interaction strongly influences the conformation(s) of the EC-3 loop, providing a structure-based rationale for the importance of the EC-3 loop to signal transduction in CB1. The putative ionic interaction results in the EC-3 loop pulling over the top (extracellular side) of the receptor; this EC-3 loop conformation may serve protective and mechanistic roles. These results suggest that the ionic interaction between D2.63(176) and K373 is important for CB1 signal transduction.

The NPXXY Motif Regulates ß-Arrestin Recruitment by the CB1 Cannabinoid Receptor.

Background: Activation of signaling effectors by G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) depends on different molecular mechanisms triggered by conserved amino acid residues. Although studies have focused on the G-protein signaling state, the mechanism for ß-arrestin signaling by CB1 is not yet well defined. Studies have indicated that transmembrane helix 7 (TMH7) and the highly conserved NPXXY motif can be subject to different conformational changes in response to biased ligands and could therefore participate in a molecular mechanism to trigger ß-arrestin recruitment. Objective: To investigate the effect of mutations in the NPXXY motif on different signaling pathways activated by the CB1 receptor. Materials and Methods: Point mutations of the NPXXY motif and associated residues were generated in the CB1 receptor using site-directed mutagenesis and transfection into HEK-293 cells. Signaling by wild-type and mutant receptors was analyzed by quantifying inhibition of cAMP, and by ß-arrestin recruitment assays. Results: We found that N7.49 and Y7.53 are essential for ß-arrestin recruitment by CB1. N7.49A and Y7.53F impair ß-arrestin signaling, with no effect on G-protein signaling. We found a regulatory role for residue I2.43; I2.43 interacts with Y7.53, affecting its positioning. Reducing steric bulk at I2.43 (I2.43A) enhances ß-arrestin1 recruitment, while introducing a polar residue (I2.43T) reduces ß-arrestin recruitment. Conclusions: These findings point to a novel mechanism for ß-arrestin recruitment, implicating amino acids in the NPXXY motif as critical for the putative ß-arrestin biased conformational state of Class A GPCRs.