A functional screen identifies transcriptional networks that regulate HIV-1 and HIV-2.

The molecular networks involved in the regulation of HIV replication, transcription, and latency remain incompletely defined. To expand our understanding of these networks, we performed an unbiased high-throughput yeast one-hybrid screen, which identified 42 human transcription factors and 85 total protein-DNA interactions with HIV-1 and HIV-2 long terminal repeats. We investigated a subset of these transcription factors for transcriptional activity in cell-based models of infection. KLF2 and KLF3 repressed HIV-1 and HIV-2 transcription in CD4+ T cells, whereas PLAGL1 activated transcription of HIV-2 through direct protein-DNA interactions. Using computational modeling with interacting proteins, we leveraged the results from our screen to identify putative pathways that define intrinsic transcriptional networks. Overall, we used a high-throughput functional screen, computational modeling, and biochemical assays to identify and confirm several candidate transcription factors and biochemical processes that influence HIV-1 and HIV-2 transcription and latency.

Comprehensive mapping of the human cytokine gene regulatory network.

Proper cytokine gene expression is essential in development, homeostasis and immune responses. Studies on the transcriptional control of cytokine genes have mostly focused on highly researched transcription factors (TFs) and cytokines, resulting in an incomplete portrait of cytokine gene regulation. Here, we used enhanced yeast one-hybrid (eY1H) assays to derive a comprehensive network comprising 1380 interactions between 265 TFs and 108 cytokine gene promoters. Our eY1H-derived network greatly expands the known repertoire of TF-cytokine gene interactions and the set of TFs known to regulate cytokine genes. We found an enrichment of nuclear receptors and confirmed their role in cytokine regulation in primary macrophages. Additionally, we used the eY1H-derived network as a framework to identify pairs of TFs that can be targeted with commercially-available drugs to synergistically modulate cytokine production. Finally, we integrated the eY1H data with single cell RNA-seq and phenotypic datasets to identify novel TF-cytokine regulatory axes in immune diseases and immune cell lineage development. Overall, the eY1H data provides a rich resource to study cytokine regulation in a variety of physiological and disease contexts.

Enhanced Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 Replication in CD4+ T Cells Derived From Individuals With Latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection.

BACKGROUND: Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) coinfection increases mortality, accelerates progression to acquired immune deficiency syndrome, and exacerbates tuberculosis disease. However, the impact of pre-existing Mtb infection on subsequent HIV infection has not been fully explored. We hypothesized that Mtb infection creates an immunological environment that influences the course of HIV infection, and we investigated whether pre-existing Mtb infection impacts the susceptibility of CD4+ T cells to HIV-1 infection. METHODS: Plasma and blood CD4+ T cells isolated from HIV-negative individuals across the Mtb infection spectrum and non-Mtb-infected control individuals were analyzed for inflammation markers and T-cell phenotypes. CD4+ T cells were infected with HIV-1 in vitro and were monitored for viral replication. RESULTS: We observed differences in proinflammatory cytokines and the relative proportion of memory T-cell subsets depending on Mtb infection status. CD4+ T cells derived from individuals with latent Mtb infection supported more efficient HIV-1 transcription, release, and replication. Enhanced HIV-1 replication correlated with higher percentages of CD4+ TEM and TTD cells. CONCLUSIONS: Pre-existing Mtb infection creates an immunological environment that reflects Mtb infection status and influences the susceptibility of CD4+ T cells to HIV-1 replication. These findings provide cellular and molecular insights into how pre-existing Mtb infection influences HIV-1 pathogenesis.

Virion-Associated Vpr Alleviates a Postintegration Block to HIV-1 Infection of Dendritic Cells.

Viral protein R (Vpr) is an HIV-1 accessory protein whose function remains poorly understood. In this report, we sought to determine the requirement of Vpr for facilitating HIV-1 infection of monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MDDCs), one of the first cell types to encounter virus in the peripheral mucosal tissues. In this report, we characterize a significant restriction of Vpr-deficient virus replication and spread in MDDCs alone and in cell-to-cell spread in MDDC-CD4+ T cell cocultures. This restriction of HIV-1 replication in MDDCs was observed in a single round of virus replication and was rescued by the expression of Vpr in trans in the incoming virion. Interestingly, infections of MDDCs with viruses that encode Vpr mutants unable to interact with either the DCAF1/DDB1 E3 ubiquitin ligase complex or a host factor hypothesized to be targeted for degradation by Vpr also displayed a significant replication defect. While the extent of proviral integration in HIV-1-infected MDDCs was unaffected by the absence of Vpr, the transcriptional activity of the viral long terminal repeat (LTR) from Vpr-deficient proviruses was significantly reduced. Together, these results characterize a novel postintegration restriction of HIV-1 replication in MDDCs and show that the interaction of Vpr with the DCAF1/DDB1 E3 ubiquitin ligase complex and the yet-to-be-identified host factor might alleviate this restriction by inducing transcription from the viral LTR. Taken together, these findings identify a robust in vitro cell culture system that is amenable to addressing mechanisms underlying Vpr-mediated enhancement of HIV-1 replication.IMPORTANCE Despite decades of work, the function of the HIV-1 protein Vpr remains poorly understood, primarily due to the lack of an in vitro cell culture system that demonstrates a deficit in replication upon infection with viruses in the absence of Vpr. In this report, we describe a novel cell infection system that utilizes primary human dendritic cells, which display a robust decrease in viral replication upon infection with Vpr-deficient HIV-1. We show that this replication difference occurs in a single round of infection and is due to decreased transcriptional output from the integrated viral genome. Viral transcription could be rescued by virion-associated Vpr. Using mutational analysis, we show that domains of Vpr involved in binding to the DCAF1/DDB1/E3 ubiquitin ligase complex and prevention of cell cycle progression into mitosis are required for LTR-mediated viral expression, suggesting that the evolutionarily conserved G2 cell cycle arrest function of Vpr is essential for HIV-1 replication.

A Subset of CD4/CD8 Double-Negative T Cells Expresses HIV Proteins in Patients on Antiretroviral Therapy.

UNLABELLED: A major goal in HIV eradication research is characterizing the reservoir cells that harbor HIV in the presence of antiretroviral therapy (ART), which reseed viremia after treatment is stopped. In general, it is assumed that the reservoir consists of CD4(+) T cells that express no viral proteins. However, recent findings suggest that this may be an overly simplistic view and that the cells that contribute to the reservoir may be a diverse population that includes both CD4(+) and CD4(-) cells. In this study, we directly infected resting CD4(+) T cells and used fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) and fiber-optic array scanning technology (FAST) to identify and image cells expressing HIV Gag. We found that Gag expression from integrated proviruses occurred in resting cells that lacked surface CD4, likely resulting from Nef- and Env-mediated receptor internalization. We also extended our approach to detect cells expressing HIV proteins in patients suppressed on ART. We found evidence that rare Gag(+) cells persist during ART and that these cells are often negative for CD4. We propose that these double-negative α/ß T cells that express HIV protein may be a component of the long-lived reservoir. IMPORTANCE: A reservoir of infected cells persists in HIV-infected patients during antiretroviral therapy (ART) that leads to rebound of virus if treatment is stopped. In this study, we used flow cytometry and cell imaging to characterize protein expression in HIV-infected resting cells. HIV Gag protein can be directly detected in infected resting cells and occurs with simultaneous loss of CD4, consistent with the expression of additional viral proteins, such as Env and Nef. Gag(+) CD4(-) cells can also be detected in suppressed patients, suggesting that a subset of infected cells express proteins during ART. Understanding the regulation of viral protein expression during ART will be key to designing effective strategies to eradicate HIV reservoirs.

Highly active antiretroviral therapies are effective against HIV-1 cell-to-cell transmission.

HIV-1 cell-to-cell transmission allows for 2-3 orders of magnitude more efficient viral spread than cell-free dissemination. The high local multiplicity of infection (MOI) observed at cell-cell contact sites may lower the efficacy of antiretroviral therapies (ART). Here we test the efficacy of commonly used antiretroviral inhibitors against cell-to-cell and cell-free HIV-1 transmission. We demonstrate that, while some nucleoside-analog reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTI) are less effective against HIV-1 cell-to-cell transmission, most non-nucleoside-analog reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTI), entry inhibitors and protease inhibitors remain highly effective. Moreover, poor NRTIs become highly effective when applied in combinations explaining the effectiveness of ART in clinical settings. Investigating the underlying mechanism, we observe a strict correlation between the ability of individual drugs and combinations of drugs to interfere with HIV-1 cell-to-cell transmission, and their effectiveness against high viral MOIs. Our results suggest that the ability to suppress high viral MOI is a feature of effective ART regimens and this parameter should be considered when designing novel antiviral therapies.

Directly infected resting CD4+T cells can produce HIV Gag without spreading infection in a model of HIV latency.

Despite the effectiveness of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in treating individuals infected with HIV, HAART is not a cure. A latent reservoir, composed mainly of resting CD4+T cells, drives viral rebound once therapy is stopped. Understanding the formation and maintenance of latently infected cells could provide clues to eradicating this reservoir. However, there have been discrepancies regarding the susceptibility of resting cells to HIV infection in vitro and in vivo. As we have previously shown that resting CD4+T cells are susceptible to HIV integration, we asked whether these cells were capable of producing viral proteins and if so, why resting cells were incapable of supporting productive infection. To answer this question, we spinoculated resting CD4+T cells with or without prior stimulation, and measured integration, transcription, and translation of viral proteins. We found that resting cells were capable of producing HIV Gag without supporting spreading infection. This block corresponded with low HIV envelope levels both at the level of protein and RNA and was not an artifact of spinoculation. The defect was reversed upon stimulation with IL-7 or CD3/28 beads. Thus, a population of latent cells can produce viral proteins without resulting in spreading infection. These results have implications for therapies targeting the latent reservoir and suggest that some latent cells could be cleared by a robust immune response.

HIV latency and integration site placement in five cell-based models.

BACKGROUND: HIV infection can be treated effectively with antiretroviral agents, but the persistence of a latent reservoir of integrated proviruses prevents eradication of HIV from infected individuals. The chromosomal environment of integrated proviruses has been proposed to influence HIV latency, but the determinants of transcriptional repression have not been fully clarified, and it is unclear whether the same molecular mechanisms drive latency in different cell culture models. RESULTS: Here we compare data from five different in vitro models of latency based on primary human T cells or a T cell line. Cells were infected in vitro and separated into fractions containing proviruses that were either expressed or silent/inducible, and integration site populations sequenced from each. We compared the locations of 6,252 expressed proviruses to those of 6,184 silent/inducible proviruses with respect to 140 forms of genomic annotation, many analyzed over chromosomal intervals of multiple lengths. A regularized logistic regression model linking proviral expression status to genomic features revealed no predictors of latency that performed better than chance, though several genomic features were significantly associated with proviral expression in individual models. Proviruses in the same chromosomal region did tend to share the same expressed or silent/inducible status if they were from the same cell culture model, but not if they were from different models. CONCLUSIONS: The silent/inducible phenotype appears to be associated with chromosomal position, but the molecular basis is not fully clarified and may differ among in vitro models of latency.

Human immunodeficiency virus integrates directly into naive resting CD4+ T cells but enters naive cells less efficiently than memory cells.

Resting CD4(+) T cells restrict human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection at or before reverse transcription, resulting in slower kinetics of reverse transcription. In a previous study, we showed that, despite this restriction at reverse transcription, HIV integration occurs in resting CD4(+) T cells, albeit with slower kinetics. In that study, the resting T cells were a mixture of memory and naïve cells. Here we asked whether the more quiescent naïve cell subset could be directly infected by HIV and, if so, whether the level of integration in naïve cells was comparable to that in memory cells. We found that HIV integrates in the naïve subset of resting CD4(+) T cells without prior activation of the cells. The level of integration (proviruses/cell) in naïve cells was lower than that in memory cells. This difference between naïve and memory cells was observed whether we inoculated the cells with R5 or X4 HIV and could not be explained solely by differences in coreceptor expression. The presence of endogenous dendritic cells did not change the number of proviruses/cell in memory or naïve cells, and deoxynucleoside pools were equally limiting. Our results instead indicate the existence of a novel restriction point in naïve T cells at viral fusion that results in reduced levels of fusion to naïve CD4(+) T cells. We conclude that HIV can integrate into both naïve and memory cells directly. Our data further support our hypothesis that integrated proviral infection of resting T cells can be established without T-cell activation.

The CXCR4-tropic human immunodeficiency virus envelope promotes more-efficient gene delivery to resting CD4+ T cells than the vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein G envelope.

Current gene transfer protocols for resting CD4(+) T cells include an activation step to enhance transduction efficiency. This step is performed because it is thought that resting cells are resistant to transduction by lentiviral-based gene therapy vectors. However, activating resting cells prior to transduction alters their physiology, with foreseeable and unforeseeable negative consequences. Thus, it would be desirable to transduce resting CD4(+) T cells without activation. We recently demonstrated, contrary to the prevailing belief, that wild-type human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) integrates into resting CD4(+) T cells. Based on that finding, we investigated whether a commonly used, vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein G (VSV-G)-pseudotyped lentiviral gene therapy vector could also integrate into resting CD4(+) T cells. To investigate this, we inoculated resting CD4(+) T cells with lentiviral particles that were pseudotyped with VSV-G or CXCR4-tropic HIV Env and assayed binding, fusion, reverse transcription, and integration. We found that the VSV-G-pseudotyped lentiviral vector failed to fuse to resting CD4(+) T cells while HIV Env-pseudotyped lentiviral vectors fused, reverse transcribed, and integrated in resting cells. Our findings suggest that HIV Env could be used effectively for the delivery of therapeutic genes to resting CD4(+) T cells and suggest that fusion may be the critical step restricting transduction of resting CD4(+) T cells by lentiviral gene therapy vectors.

Mechanisms of HIV-1 cell-to-cell transmission and the establishment of the latent reservoir.

HIV-1 spreads through both the release of cell-free particles and by cell-to-cell transmission. Mounting evidence indicates that cell-to-cell transmission is more efficient than cell-free transmission of particles and likely influences the pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection. This mode of viral transmission also influences the generation and maintenance of the latent reservoir, which represents the main obstacle for curing the infection. In this review we will discuss general cell contact-dependent mechanisms that HIV-1 utilizes for its spread and the evidence pointing to cell-to-cell transmission as a mechanism for the establishment and maintenance of latent infection.

Pertussis toxin inhibits neutrophil recruitment to delay antibody-mediated clearance of Bordetella pertussis.

Whooping cough is considered a childhood disease, although there is growing evidence that children are infected by adult carriers. Additionally, increasing numbers of vaccinated adults are being diagnosed with Bordetella pertussis disease. Thus it is critical to understand how B. pertussis remains endemic even in highly vaccinated or immune populations. Here we used the mouse model to examine the nature of sterilizing immunity to B. pertussis. Antibodies were necessary to control infection but did not rapidly clear B. pertussis from the lungs. However, antibodies affected B. pertussis after a delay of at least a week by a mechanism that involved neutrophils and Fc receptors, suggesting that neutrophils phagocytose and clear antibody-opsonized bacteria via Fc receptors. B. pertussis blocked migration of neutrophils and inhibited their recruitment to the lungs during the first week of infection by a pertussis toxin-dependent (PTx-dependent) mechanism; a PTx mutant of B. pertussis induced rapid neutrophil recruitment and was rapidly cleared from the lungs by adoptively transferred antibodies. Depletion of neutrophils abrogated the defects of the PTx mutant. Together these results indicate that PTx inhibits neutrophil recruitment, which consequently allows B. pertussis to avoid rapid antibody-mediated clearance and therefore successfully infect immune hosts.

CD4+ T Cell Subsets and Pathways to HIV Latency.

Latent infection of CD4+ T cells is the main barrier to eradicating HIV-1 infection from infected patients. The cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the establishment and maintenance of latent infection are directly linked to the transcriptional program of the different CD4+ T cell subsets targeted by the virus. In this review, we provide an overview of how T cell activation, T cell differentiation into functional subsets, and the mode of initial viral infection influence HIV proviral transcription and entry into latency.

HIV-1-Infected CD4+ T Cells Facilitate Latent Infection of Resting CD4+ T Cells through Cell-Cell Contact.

HIV-1 is transmitted between T cells through the release of cell-free particles and through cell-cell contact. Cell-to-cell transmission is more efficient than cell-free virus transmission, mediates resistance to immune responses, and facilitates the spread of virus among T cells. However, whether HIV cell-to-cell transmission influences the establishment of HIV-1 latency has not been carefully explored. We developed an HIV-1 latency model based on the transmission of HIV-1 directly to resting CD4+ T cells by cell-cell contact. This model recapitulates the spread of HIV-1 in T-cell-dense anatomical compartments. We demonstrate that productively infected activated CD4+ T cells transmit HIV-1 to resting CD4+ T cells in a cell-contact-dependent manner. However, proviruses generated in this fashion are more difficult to induce compared to proviruses generated by cell-free infection, suggesting that cell-to-cell transmission influences the establishment and maintenance of latent infection in resting CD4+ T cells.

HIV-1 replicates and persists in vaginal epithelial dendritic cells.

HIV-1 acquisition occurs most commonly after sexual contact. To establish infection, HIV-1 must infect cells that support high-level replication, namely CD4+ T cells, which are absent from the outermost genital epithelium. Dendritic cells (DCs), present in mucosal epithelia, potentially facilitate HIV-1 acquisition. We show that vaginal epithelial DCs, termed CD1a+ VEDCs, are unlike other blood- and tissue-derived DCs because they express langerin but not DC-SIGN, and unlike skin-based langerin+ DC subset Langerhans cells (LCs), they do not harbor Birbeck granules. Individuals primarily acquire HIV-1 that utilizes the CCR5 receptor (termed either R5 or R5X4) during heterosexual transmission, and the mechanism for the block against variants that only use the CXCR4 receptor (classified as X4) remains unclear. We show that X4 as compared with R5 HIV-1 shows limited to no replication in CD1a+ VEDCs. This differential replication occurs after fusion, suggesting that receptor usage influences postentry steps in the virus life cycle. Furthermore, CD1a+ VEDCs isolated from HIV-1-infected virologically suppressed women harbor HIV-1 DNA. Thus, CD1a+ VEDCs are potentially infected early during heterosexual transmission and also retain virus during treatment. Understanding the interplay between HIV-1 and CD1a+ VEDCs is important for future prevention and cure strategies.

Porphyromonas gingivalis-mediated signaling through TLR4 mediates persistent HIV infection of primary macrophages.

Periodontal infections contribute to HIV-associated co-morbidities in the oral cavity and provide a model to interrogate the dysregulation of macrophage function, inflammatory disease progression, and HIV replication during co-infections. We investigated the effect of Porphyromonas gingivalis on the establishment of HIV infection in monocyte-derived macrophages. HIV replication in macrophages was significantly repressed in the presence of P. gingivalis. This diminished viral replication was due partly to a decrease in the expression of integrated HIV provirus. HIV repression depended upon signaling through TLR4 as knock-down of TLR4 with siRNA rescued HIV expression. Importantly, HIV expression was reactivated upon removal of P. gingivalis. Our observations suggest that exposure of macrophages to Gram-negative bacteria influence the establishment and maintenance of HIV persistence in macrophages through a TLR4-dependent mechanism.

Impact of Chromatin on HIV Replication.

Chromatin influences Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) integration and replication. This review highlights critical host factors that influence chromatin structure and organization and that also impact HIV integration, transcriptional regulation and latency. Furthermore, recent attempts to target chromatin associated factors to reduce the HIV proviral load are discussed.

HIV cell-to-cell transmission: effects on pathogenesis and antiretroviral therapy.

HIV spreads more efficiently in vitro when infected cells directly contact uninfected cells to form virological synapses. A hallmark of virological synapses is that viruses can be transmitted at a higher multiplicity of infection (MOI) that, in vitro, results in a higher number of proviruses. Whether HIV also spreads by cell-cell contact in vivo is a matter of debate. Here we discuss recent data that suggest that contact-mediated transmission largely manifests itself in vivo as CD4+ T cell depletion. The assault of a cell by a large number of incoming particles is likely to be efficiently sensed by the innate cellular surveillance to trigger cell death. The large number of particles transferred across virological synapses has also been implicated in reduced efficacy of antiretroviral therapies. Thus, antiretroviral therapies must remain effective against the high MOI observed during cell-to-cell transmission to inhibit both viral replication and the pathogenesis associated with HIV infection.

Cell-to-cell transmission of viruses.

The life cycle of most viruses involves the release of particles into the extracellular space. Consequently, the study of virus egress as well as virus entry has focused almost exclusively on the biology of cell-free virus. However, cell-free virus spread is often very inefficient. Specific barriers, either located in the donor cell or in the target cell, prevent efficient spread by the cell-free mode. In contrast, viral spread by direct cell-cell contact is largely unaffected by most of these barriers resulting in preferential spread by cell-to-cell transmission. Virus cell-to-cell transmission allows an efficient coordination of several steps of the viral life cycle. It often involves complex inter-cellular adhesion, cellular polarity and intra-cellular trafficking. Because virus cell-to-cell transmission can involve transmission through zones of tight cell-cell contact that are resistant to neutralizing antibodies and reach a high local particle concentration, cell-to-cell transmission can contribute to the pathogenesis of viral infections.

Cell-to-cell transmission can overcome multiple donor and target cell barriers imposed on cell-free HIV.

Virus transmission can occur either by a cell-free mode through the extracellular space or by cell-to-cell transmission involving direct cell-to-cell contact. The factors that determine whether a virus spreads by either pathway are poorly understood. Here, we assessed the relative contribution of cell-free and cell-to-cell transmission to the spreading of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). We demonstrate that HIV can spread by a cell-free pathway if all the steps of the viral replication cycle are efficiently supported in highly permissive cells. However, when the cell-free path was systematically hindered at various steps, HIV transmission became contact-dependent. Cell-to-cell transmission overcame barriers introduced in the donor cell at the level of gene expression and surface retention by the restriction factor tetherin. Moreover, neutralizing antibodies that efficiently inhibit cell-free HIV were less effective against cell-to-cell transmitted virus. HIV cell-to-cell transmission also efficiently infected target T cells that were relatively poorly susceptible to cell-free HIV. Importantly, we demonstrate that the donor and target cell types influence critically the extent by which cell-to-cell transmission can overcome each barrier. Mechanistically, cell-to-cell transmission promoted HIV spread to more cells and infected target cells with a higher proviral content than observed for cell-free virus. Our data demonstrate that the frequently observed contact-dependent spread of HIV is the result of specific features in donor and target cell types, thus offering an explanation for conflicting reports on the extent of cell-to-cell transmission of HIV.