Eligibility to COAPT trial in the daily practice: A real-world experience.

BACKGROUND: The COAPT Trial was the first ever to demonstrate a survival benefit in treating functional mitral regurgitation (FMR). That was achieved through transcatheter mitral repair in selected patients. The exact proportion of patients fulfilling COAPT selection criteria in the real-world is unknown. AIMS: To assess the applicability of COAPT criteria in real world and its impact on patients' survival. METHODS: We assessed the clinical data and follow-up results of all consecutive patients admitted for FMR at our Department between January 2016 and May 2021 according to COAPT eligibility. COAPT eligibility was retrospectively assessed by a cardiac surgeon and a cardiologist. RESULTS: Among 394 patients, 56 (14%) were COAPT eligible. The most frequent reasons for exclusion were MR ≤ 2 (22%), LVEF < 20% or >50% (19%), and non-optimized GDMT (21.3%). Among Non-COAPT patients, weighted 4-year survival was higher in patients who received MitraClip compared to those who were left in optimized medical therapy (91.5% confidence interval [CI: 0.864, 0.96] vs. 71.8% [CI: 0.509, 0.926], respectively, p = 0.027). CONCLUSIONS: Only a minority (14%) of real-world patients with FMR referred to a tertiary hospital fulfilled the COAPT selection criteria. Among Non-COAPT patients, weighted 4-year survival was higher in patients who received MitraClip compared to those who were left in optimized medical therapy (91.5% [0.864, 0.96] vs. 71.8% [0.509, 0.926], respectively, p = 0.027).

A novel versatile concept of cardioplegia delivery in cardiac surgery: The ReverseTWO cardioplegia circuit system.

Nowadays, the necessity of having a cardioplegia circuit capable of being adapted in order to administer different types of cardioplegia is strategically fundamental, both for the perfusionist and for the cardiac surgeon. This allows to avoid cutting tubes, guarantees sterility and, most of all, limits the number of cardioplegia circuits for the different strategies of cardiac arrest. The novel "ReverseTWO cardioplegia circuit system" is the development of the precedent "Reverse system" where mainly the 4:1 and crystalloid cardioplegia were used, It has the advantage of allowing immediate change of cardioplegia set-up versus four types of cardioplegia technique, when the strategy is unexpectedly changed before the beginning of cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB), is safe and enables the perfusionist to use one single custom pack of cardioplegia. Two pediatric roller pumps are usually used in our centre for cardioplegia administration; they have a standardized calibration (the leading with » inch and the follower with 1/8 inch) and the circuit consequently has two different tube diameters for the two different pumps. The presence in the circuit of two different shunts coupled with two different coloured clamps allows the immediate set-up for different cardioplegia administration techniques utilizing a colour-coding mechanism The aim of this manuscript is to present the new ReverseTWO Circuit. This novel system allows to administer four different cardioplegic solutions (4:1, 1:4, crystalloid, ematic) based on multiple tubes, which can be selectively clamped, identified through a color-coding method. The specificity of this circuit is the great versatility, which leads to numerous advantages, such as reduced risk of perfusion accident and reduced costs related not only to the purchase of different cardioplegia kits but also to the storage. https://youtu.be/ovJBE4ok2Ds.

Imaging of the Diaphragm Following Cardiac Surgery: Focus on Ultrasonographic Assessment.

Diaphragm dysfunction is a common complication following cardiac surgery. Its clinical impact is variable, ranging from the absence of symptoms to the acute respiratory failure. Post-operative diaphragm dysfunction may negatively affect patients' prognosis delaying the weaning from the mechanical ventilation (MV), extending the time of hospitalization and increasing mortality. Ultrasonography is a valid tool to evaluate diaphragmatic impairment in different settings, like the Intensive Care Unit, to predict successful weaning from the MV, and the Cardiovascular Rehabilitation Unit, to stratify patients in terms of risk of functional recovery failure. The aim of this review is to describe the pathophysiology of post-cardiac surgery diaphragm dysfunction, the techniques used for its diagnosis and the potential applications of diaphragm ultrasound.

Three Logistic Predictive Models for the Prediction of Mortality and Major Pulmonary Complications after Cardiac Surgery.

Background and Objectives: Pulmonary complications are a leading cause of morbidity after cardiac surgery. The aim of this study was to develop models to predict postoperative lung dysfunction and mortality. Materials and Methods: This was a single-center, observational, retrospective study. We retrospectively analyzed the data of 11,285 adult patients who underwent all types of cardiac surgery from 2003 to 2015. We developed logistic predictive models for in-hospital mortality, postoperative pulmonary complications occurring in the intensive care unit, and postoperative non-invasive mechanical ventilation when clinically indicated. Results: In the "preoperative model" predictors for mortality were advanced age (p < 0.001), New York Heart Association (NYHA) class (p < 0.001) and emergent surgery (p = 0.036); predictors for non-invasive mechanical ventilation were advanced age (p < 0.001), low ejection fraction (p = 0.023), higher body mass index (p < 0.001) and preoperative renal failure (p = 0.043); predictors for postoperative pulmonary complications were preoperative chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (p = 0.007), preoperative kidney injury (p < 0.001) and NYHA class (p = 0.033). In the "surgery model" predictors for mortality were intraoperative inotropes (p = 0.003) and intraoperative intra-aortic balloon pump (p < 0.001), which also predicted the incidence of postoperative pulmonary complications. There were no specific variables in the surgery model predicting the use of non-invasive mechanical ventilation. In the "intensive care unit model", predictors for mortality were postoperative kidney injury (p < 0.001), tracheostomy (p < 0.001), inotropes (p = 0.029) and PaO2/FiO2 ratio at discharge (p = 0.028); predictors for non-invasive mechanical ventilation were kidney injury (p < 0.001), inotropes (p < 0.001), blood transfusions (p < 0.001) and PaO2/FiO2 ratio at the discharge (p < 0.001). Conclusions: In this retrospective study, we identified the preoperative, intraoperative and postoperative characteristics associated with mortality and complications following cardiac surgery.

Direct oral anticoagulants in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation and extreme body weight.

BACKGROUND: Limited clinical data exist describing the use of direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) in patient with extreme body weight. Thus, the International Society of Thrombosis and Haemostasis (ISTH) recommends avoiding DOACs in patients with weight >120 Kg, and on the contrary, no restrictions exist for underweight patients. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects of extreme body weight on DOAC activity and to compare the clinical outcomes of patients with an extreme body weight versus patients with a normal weight (61-119 Kg) treated with DOACs. METHODS: Single tertiary care Italian centre multidisciplinary registry including nonvalvular atrial fibrillation (NVAF) patients treated with DOACs. Based on weight, three subcohorts were defined: (i) underweight patients (≤60 Kg); (ii) patients with a normal weight (61-119 Kg, as control group); and (iii) overweight patients (≥120 Kg). Primary efficacy endpoint was 2-year rate of thromboembolic events. Primary safety endpoint was 2-year rate of major bleeding. Event-free survival curves among groups were compared using Cox-Mantel test. RESULTS: 812 NVAF patients were included, 108 patients weighed ≤60 Kg (13%, underweight), 688 weighed between 61 and 119 Kg (85%, normal weight), and 16 weighed ≥120 Kg (2%, overweight). In particular, among underweight patients, dabigatran was prescribed in 26% patients, apixaban in 27%, rivaroxaban in 28% and edoxaban in 22% ones. Instead, among overweight patients, 44% were treated with dabigatran, 25% with apixaban, 25% with rivaroxaban and 4% with edoxaban. Underweight patients were older, more frequently women, with lower creatinine clearance and a history of previous strokes, resulting in higher CHA2DS2-VASc score than in both remaining groups. Up to 2 years, no statistically significant difference was observed between the three groups of weight for thromboembolic events (P = .765) and for overall bleeding (P = .125), but a trend towards decreased overall bleeding rates was noticed as weight increased (24.1% vs 16.7% vs 12.5%, respectively). CONCLUSION: In this tertiary care centre registry, 15% of patients treated with DOACs presented an extreme weight. Compared to patients with a normal weight, no significant rates of thromboembolic events were observed for underweight or overweight patients. A trend towards decreased overall bleeding frequency as weight increased was highlighted up to 2 years. The present results should be considered as preliminary and hypothesis generating.

Genetic background of mitral valve prolapse.

Mitral valve prolapse (MVP) has a prevalence of 2-3% among the population. It involves a heterogeneous group of patients with different expressions and according to the phenotype can be further divided into fibroelastic deficiency, which is mainly considered as a degeneration due to aging, and myxomatous disease, frequently associated with familiar clusters. Thus, MVP can be present in syndromic, when part of a well-defined syndrome, and non-syndromic forms. The latter occurs more often. To the second belong both familiar and isolated or sporadic forms. On one hand, among familial forms, although X-linked transmission related to FLNA gene was initially identified, further studies reported also autosomal dominant mode involving MVPP genes, including DCHS1. On the other hand, genome-wide association studies (GWAS), among unrelated patients, allowed the identification of new MVP-associated genes, such as LMCD1, GLIS, and TNS1. Moreover, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) on metalloproteinase genes have been related to MVP. Interestingly some genes such as DCHS1 and DZIP1 have been reported to be involved in both familiar and isolated forms. The present review aims to illustrate the updated genetic background of MVP.

Surgical approach to combined mitral and tricuspid valve disease: good neighbourhood rules.

Tricuspid regurgitation afflicts more than one-third of patients with mitral valve disease during their clinical history, and negatively affects their outcomes, increasing mortality and hospitalizations for heart failure and reducing the quality of life. A renewed interest in the 'neglected valve' has increased the frequency of the combined treatment of these two diseases. Undoubtedly necessary in patients with degenerative mitral valve disease in the presence of two severe valve defects, tricuspid annuloplasty has proven to be safe and effective even if performed prophylactically, when tricuspid annular dilation coexists with primary mitral dysfunction. In the absence of survival benefits, however, this additional surgical procedure increases the risk of high-grade atrio-ventricular blocks and the need for a definitive pacemaker. On the other hand, the role of surgery has been scaled down in patients with functional mitral and tricuspid regurgitation. In this context, a multidisciplinary approach is needed and transcatheter alternatives are increasingly the chosen treatment option. A new therapeutic algorithm is therefore looming on the horizon. In the future, the treatment of tricuspid and mitral valve disease may be considered two potentially distinct and successive phases of an integrated heart failure patients care process.

Mitral regurgitation in hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy: The role of the edge-to-edge technique.

Mitral regurgitation in hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy (HOCM) is mainly due to systolic anterior motion (SAM) and may be abolished in most of the patients by extended myectomy alone. However, a minority of HOCM patients may present mitral regurgitation due to organic mitral valve (MV) anomalies (such as MV leaflet prolapse, chordal rupture, leaflet cleft, and fibrosis) which need to be addressed. In addition, when the thickness of the interventricular septum is not particularly pronounced, shallow myectomy may not be enough to eliminate SAM and additional procedures have been proposed, including MV replacement, anterior leaflet plication/extension, reorientation of papillary muscles, secondary chordae cutting, and edge-to-edge technique. MV repair in the context of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is certainly more challenging due to the suboptimal exposure of the MV related to the presence of a hypertrophic left ventricle and a not particularly dilated left atrium. The simplest, least time-consuming repair technique should, therefore, be chosen. In this setting, the edge-to-edge technique has the great advantage of being an easy, quick, and reproducible procedure. The disease process of HOCM is not confined to the myocardium, but also involves the MV apparatus, which plays a critical role in dynamic left ventricular outflow tract (LVOT) obstruction. A comprehensive approach utilizing multimodality imaging, particularly echocardiography and cardiac magnetic resonance, has identified multiple abnormalities of the MV complex that have enhanced our understanding of the mechanisms of SAM and LVOT obstruction in HOCM.

Fate of moderate secondary mitral regurgitation in patients undergoing aortic valve replacement for severe aortic regurgitation.

OBJECTIVES: Moderate secondary mitral regurgitation is common in patients with severe aortic regurgitation, but whether it has to be addressed at the time of aortic valve surgery remains unclear. With this study, we evaluated the long-term fate of moderate secondary mitral regurgitation in this specific scenario. METHODS: Between January 2004 and January 2018, in 154 patients admitted to our institution for treatment of severe aortic regurgitation, a moderate secondary mitral regurgitation was diagnosed. Ninety-four patients underwent isolated aortic valve replacement (group 1) and 60 patients underwent also concomitant mitral valve annuloplasty (group 2). RESULTS: One death (1.1%) occurred in group 1, whereas two deaths (3.3%) occurred in group 2 (p = .561). At 11 years, the cumulative incidence function of cardiac death, with noncardiac death as a competing risk was 11.5 ± 5.11% in group 1 and 8.3 ± 5.15% in group 2 (p = .731). The cumulative incidence function of mitral valve reintervention, with death as a competing risk, was 3.7 ± 2.61% in group 1 and 4.5 ± 4.35% in group 2 (p = .620) at 11 years. Secondary mitral regurgitation improved to ≤mild in 66% and 76% of the survivors of group 1 and group 2, respectively (p = .67). CONCLUSIONS: In our experience, in patients with moderate secondary mitral regurgitation undergoing aortic valve replacement for severe aortic regurgitation, concomitant mitral valve annuloplasty did not improve the long-term survival, the incidence of cardiac death and mitral valve reoperation or the evolution of the mitral valve disease.

The management of secondary mitral regurgitation in patients with heart failure: a joint position statement from the Heart Failure Association (HFA), European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging (EACVI), European Heart Rhythm Association (EHRA), and European Association of Percutaneous Cardiovascular Interventions (EAPCI) of the ESC.

Secondary (or functional) mitral regurgitation (SMR) occurs frequently in chronic heart failure (HF) with reduced left ventricular (LV) ejection fraction, resulting from LV remodelling that prevents coaptation of the valve leaflets. Secondary mitral regurgitation contributes to progression of the symptoms and signs of HF and confers worse prognosis. The management of HF patients with SMR is complex and requires timely referral to a multidisciplinary Heart Team. Optimization of pharmacological and device therapy according to guideline recommendations is crucial. Further management requires careful clinical and imaging assessment, addressing the anatomical and functional features of the mitral valve and left ventricle, overall HF status, and relevant comorbidities. Evidence concerning surgical correction of SMR is sparse and it is doubtful whether this approach improves prognosis. Transcatheter repair has emerged as a promising alternative, but the conflicting results of current randomized trials require careful interpretation. This collaborative position statement, developed by four key associations of the European Society of Cardiology-the Heart Failure Association (HFA), European Association of Percutaneous Cardiovascular Interventions (EAPCI), European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging (EACVI), and European Heart Rhythm Association (EHRA)-presents an updated practical approach to the evaluation and management of patients with HF and SMR based upon a Heart Team approach.

Characterization of the electrophysiological substrate in patients with Barlow's disease.

BACKGROUND: Myxomatous mitral valve prolapse (MVP) and mitral-annular disjunction (Barlow disease) are at-risk for ventricular arrhythmias (VA). Fibrosis involving the papillary muscles and/or the infero-basal left ventricular (LV) wall was reported at autopsy in sudden cardiac death (SCD) patients with MVP. OBJECTIVES: We investigated the electrophysiological substrate subtending VA in MVP patients with Barlow disease phenotype. METHODS: Twenty-three patients with VA were enrolled, including five with syncope and four with a history of SCD. Unipolar (Uni < 8.3 mV) and bipolar (Bi < 1.5 mV) low-voltage areas were analyzed with electro-anatomical mapping (EAM), and VA inducibility was evaluated with programmed ventricular stimulation (PES). Electrophysiological parameters were correlated with VA patterns, electrocardiogram (ECG) inferior negative T wave (nTW), and late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) assessed by cardiac magnetic resonance. RESULTS: Premature ventricular complex (PVC) burden was 12 061.9 ± 12 994.6/24 h with a papillary-muscle type (PM-PVC) in 18 patients (68%). Twelve-lead ECG showed nTW in 12 patients (43.5%). A large Uni less than 8.3 mV area (62.4 ± 45.5 cm2 ) was detected in the basal infero-lateral LV region in 12 (73%) patients, and in the papillary muscles (2.2 ± 2.9 cm2 ) in 5 (30%) of 15 patients undergoing EAM. A concomitant Bi less than 1.5 mV area (5.0 ± 1.0 cm2 ) was identified in two patients. A history of SCD, and the presence of nTW, and LGE were associated with a greater Uni less than 8.3 mV extension: (32.8 ± 3.1 cm2 vs. 9.2 ± 8.7 cm2 ), nTW (20.1 ± 11.0 vs. 4.1 ± 3.8 cm2 ), and LGE (19.2 ± 11.7 cm2 vs. 1.0 ± 2.0 cm2 , p = .013), respectively. All patients with PM-PVC had a Uni less than 8.3 mV area. Sustained VA (ventricular tachycardia 2 and VF 2) were induced by PES only in four patients (one with resuscitated SCD). CONCLUSIONS: Low unipolar low voltage areas can be identified with EAM in the basal inferolateral LV region and in the papillary muscles as a potential electrophysiological substrate for VA and SCD in patients with MVP and Barlow disease phenotype.

Aortic and mitral bioprosthetic valve dysfunction: surgical or percutaneous solutions?

In the last years, there has been a trend to prefer biological prostheses, especially among young patients, with the aim to avoid anticoagulant treatment. Surgical tissue valves have so far demonstrated their solid long-term durability. However, younger age has been identified as one of the main risk factors for developing structural valve deterioration (SVD). As a consequence, the proportion of subjects at risk for valve dysfunction will constantly rise in the near future. However, while surgical reintervention has always been considered the gold standard for treatment of prosthesis deterioration, the introduction of transcatheter heart valves could offer new therapeutical options, particularly among high-risk patients, aiming a second less invasive chance. The recent standardization of valve durability definitions will soon allow a more comprehensive understanding of the mechanism underlying SVD and guide the choice of prosthesis for patients needing valve replacement.

Is mitral annuloplasty an effective treatment for severe atrial functional mitral regurgitation?

INTRODUCTION: Unlike secondary mitral regurgitation (MR) in the setting of left ventricular disease, results of surgical treatment of severe atrial functional MR has remained largely unspoken. The aim of this study is to analyze short to midterm results of isolated ring annuloplasty in patients with severe atrial functional MR, in comparison with a matched cohort of patients with secondary MR. METHODS: A retrospective review of our Institutional database was carried out to find all patients fulfilling strict echocardiographic criteria to define atrial functional MR. A control group of patients with MR secondary to ventricular disease was selected. All patients underwent mitral repair by means of isolated ring annuloplasty. Mortality, reoperation for severe MR, and recurrence of MR were assessed by clinical and echocardiographic follow-up. Cumulative incidence function (CIF) of recurrence of MR using death and reoperation as the competitive risk was used. RESULTS: Twenty patients were selected for the study group and 25 for the control group. There were no differences between the two groups in terms of mortality and reoperation rate. At 2 years, the CIF of recurrence of MR ≥ 3+ and ≥ 2+ was significantly higher in patients with secondary MR compared to patients with atrial functional MR (20.8 ± 8.29% vs 5.9 ± 5.71% and 45.8 ± 10.17% vs 5.9 ± 5.71%) CONCLUSION: In patients with severe atrial functional MR, mitral valve repair by means of isolated ring annuloplasty seems a more effective and durable treatment as compared to patients with MR secondary to ventricular disease. Larger cohorts with longer follow up are needed to confirm these results.

First-in-man Valve-in-Valve with the new balloon-expandable Myval transcatheter heart valve in a failed sutureless Perceval bioprosthesis.

Sutureless aortic bioprostheses were introduced more than ten years ago, with the aim of decreasing cross-clamp time and thus becoming the first choice in older patients for many surgeons. However, published data are limited to a 5-year follow-up, and some cases of deterioration have already been described. High-risk patients who once have benefitted from a fast sutureless aortic replacement and now are experiencing a prosthesis dysfunction, could take advantage of a percutaneous Valve-in-Sutureless technique. Furthermore, thanks to technological improvement, new transcatheter prostheses have been designed, allowing a more precise positioning. In this report, we described the first Myval-in-Perceval case, which resulted in a safe and effective procedure.

Fate of mild-to-moderate bicuspid aortic valve disease untreated during ascending aorta replacement.

BACKGROUND: Bicuspid aortic valve (BAV) is the most common congenital heart defect and it is responsible for an increased risk of developing aortic valve and ascending aorta complications. In case of mild to moderate BAV disease in patients undergoing supracoronary ascending aorta replacement, it is unclear whether a concomitant aortic valve replacement should be performed. METHODS: From June 2002 to January 2020, 75 patients with mild-to-moderate BAV regurgitation (±mild-to-moderate stenosis) who underwent isolated supracoronary ascending aorta replacement were retrospectively analyzed. Clinical and echocardiographic follow-up was 100% complete (mean: 7.4 ± 3.9 years, max: 16.4). Kaplan-Meier estimates were employed to analyze long-term survival. Cumulative incidence function (CIF) for time to reoperation, recurrence of aortic regurgitation (AR) ≥3+ and aortic stenosis (AS) greater than moderate, with death as competing risk, were computed. RESULTS: There was no hospital mortality and no cardiac death occurred. Overall survival at 12 years was 97.4 ± 2.5%, 95% confidence interval (CI: 83.16-99.63). At follow-up there were no cases of aortic root surgery whereas three patients underwent AV replacement. At 12 years the CIF of reoperation was 2.6 ± 2.5%, 95% CI [0.20-11.53]. At follow-up, AR 3+/4+ was present in 1 pt and AS greater than moderate in 3. At 12 years the CIF of AR more than 2+/4+ was 5.1 ± 4.98% and of AS more than moderate 6.9 ± 3.8%. CONCLUSIONS: In our study mild to moderate regurgitation of a BAV did not do significantly worse at least up to 10 years after isolated supracoronary ascending aorta replacement.

Complicated postoperative course in isolated tricuspid valve surgery: Looking for predictors.

BACKGROUND: This study aims at better defining the profile of patients with a complicated versus noncomplicated postoperative course following isolated tricuspid valve (TV) surgery to identify predictors of a favorable/unfavorable hospital outcome. METHODS: All patients treated with isolated tricuspid surgery from March 1997 to January 2020 at our institution were retrospectively reviewed. Considering the complexity of most of these patients, a regular postoperative course was arbitrarily defined as a length-of-stay in intensive care unit less than 4 days and/or postoperative length-of-stay less than 10days. Patients were therefore divided accordingly in two groups. RESULTS: One hundred and seventy-two patients were considered, among whom 97 (56.3%) had a regular (REG) and 75 (43.6%) a non-regular (NEG) postoperative course. The latter had worse baseline clinical and echocardiographic characteristics, with higher rate of renal insufficiency, previous heart failure hospitalizations, cardiac operations, and right ventricular dysfunction. NEG patients more frequently needed tricuspid replacement and experienced a greater number of complications (p < .001) and higher in-hospital mortality (13% vs. 0%, p < .001). The majority of these complications were related to more advanced stage of the tricuspid disease. Among most important predictors of a negative outcome univariate analysis identified chronic kidney disease, ascites, previous right heart failure hospitalizations, right ventricular dysfunction, previous cardiac surgeries, TV replacement and higher MELD scores. At multivariate analysis, liver enzymes and diuretics' dose were predictors of complicated postoperative course. CONCLUSION: In isolated TV surgery a complicated postoperative course is observed in patients with more advanced right heart failure and organ damage. Earlier surgical referral is associated to excellent outcomes and should be recommended.

Confocal Blood Flow Videomicroscopy of Thrombus Formation over Human Arteries and Local Targeting of P2X7.

Atherothrombosis exposes vascular components to blood. Currently, new antithrombotic therapies are emerging. Herein we investigated thrombogenesis of human arteries with/without atherosclerosis, and the interaction of coagulation and vascular components, we and explored the anti-thrombogenic efficacy of blockade of the P2X purinoceptor 7 (P2X7). A confocal blood flow videomicroscopy system was performed on cryosections of internal mammary artery (IMA) or carotid plaque (CPL) determining/localizing platelets and fibrin. Blood from healthy donors elicited thrombi over arterial layers. Confocal microscopy associated thrombus with tissue presence of collagen type I, laminin, fibrin(ogen) and tissue factor (TF). The addition of antibodies blocking TF (aTF) or factor XI (aFXI) to blood significantly reduced fibrin deposition, variable platelet aggregation and aTF + aFXI almost abolished thrombus formation, showing synergy between coagulation pathways. A scarce effect of aTF over sub-endothelial regions, more abundant in tissue TF and bundles of laminin and collagen type I than deep intima, may suggest tissue thrombogenicity as molecular structure-related. Consistently with TF-related vascular function and expression of P2X7, the sections from CPL but not IMA tissue cultures pre-treated with the P2X7 antagonist A740003 demonstrated poor thrombogenesis in flow experiments. These data hint to local targeting studies on P2X7 modulation for atherothrombosis prevention/therapy.

Comparing traditional aortic valve surgery and transapical approach to transcatheter aortic valve implant.

During the last 15 years, transcatheter aortic valve implant (TAVI) has become a valid alternative to surgical aortic valve replacement in symptomatic patients with severe aortic stenosis, and high or intermediate operative risk. Transcatheter aortic valve implant could be approached through various access sites, among which the transapical has long been one of the most popular. Through the years, this procedure has shown results similar to the standard surgical approach, but not as good as the same procedure via the transfemoral approach. For this reason, along with continuous technological advances, the transfemoral approach is used, presently, in 90% of the patient, while the transapical route has been limited, progressively, to a minority of patients. Currently the Heart Team should decide, in every single patient, between conventional surgery and TAVI. In clinical practice, TAVI is favoured in high-risk patients, and in the elderly at intermediate surgical risk with favourable anatomical features. In patients in whom TAVI is preferable to surgery, but have 'non-usable' femoral approach, alternative routes, such as transaxillary or transapical, could be considered.

Severe aortic stenosis in the young, with or without bicuspid valve: is transcatheter aortic valve implantation the first choice?

During the last decade, transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) has represented a valid alternative to surgical aortic valve replacement in patients with aortic stenosis and elevated surgical risk. Recent randomized clinical trials reported excellent results also for patients at low surgical risk, but in clinical practice, the mean age of the patients treated remain over 75 years, and the presence of a bicuspid aortic valve still represents an important exclusion criteria. Today, aortic valve replacement with a mechanical prosthesis remains the treatment of choice for young adults with aortic stenosis, although the desire to avoid oral anticoagulants drives more patients younger than 65 years of age towards biological prostheses. Furthermore, despite the follow-up of patients after TAVI is still limited to a few years, the opportunity of a second percutaneous treatment (TAVI-in-TAVI), extends the scope of percutaneous strategy. In the next few years, TAVI has to face many challenges to become a valid alternative to surgery in the younger patients as well.

Patient with heart failure: importance to treat valvular diseases.

COVID-19 pandemic is causing an unprecedented burden on healthcare resources and this includes treatment of heart failure and valvular heart diseases (VHD). Percutaneous procedures have broadened the number of patients with VHD who could be treated. However, COVID-19 pandemic has challenged their implementation. The risk of in-hospital infection, resources reallocation, reduced access to hospital caused a substantial delay of VHD treatment with an increased risk of clinical worsening and mortality. Now, the pandemic is not ended and subsequent waves are likely. Reorganization of our healthcare resources is needed, including a proper algorithm for patients' prioritization, based on the severity of their valve disease, their life expectancy, complexity of the intervention, and the resources available. A wider use of telemedicine for patients' selection and follow-up and any measurement that can shorten the duration of the hospital stay must be adopted. Patients' and healthcare staff screening for COVID-19 and all needed procedures to prevent infection will continue to be mandatory. Percutaneous procedures, compared to surgery, are associated with a lower risk of infection and a lower need for in-hospital resources, including a shorter duration of hospital stay. This may favour their adoption when the risk of viral infection is high.