Thromboxane prostanoid signaling in macrophages attenuates lymphedema and facilitates lymphangiogenesis in mice : TP signaling and lymphangiogenesis.

BACKGROUND: Accumulating evidence suggests that prostaglandin E2, an arachidonic acid (AA) metabolite, enhances lymphangiogenesis in response to inflammation. However, thromboxane A2 (TXA2), another AA metabolite, is not well known. Thus, this study aimed to determine the role of thromboxane prostanoid (TP) signaling in lymphangiogenesis in secondary lymphedema. METHODS AND RESULTS: Lymphedema was induced by the ablation of lymphatic vessels in mouse tails. Compared with wild-type mice, tail lymphedema in Tp-deficient mice was enhanced, which was associated with suppressed lymphangiogenesis as indicated by decreased lymphatic vessel area and pro-lymphangiogenesis-stimulating factors. Numerous macrophages were found in the tail tissues of Tp-deficient mice. Furthermore, the deletion of TP in macrophages increased tail edema and decreased lymphangiogenesis and pro-lymphangiogenic cytokines, which was accompanied by increased numbers of macrophages and gene expression related to a pro-inflammatory macrophage phenotype in tail tissues. In vivo microscopic studies revealed fluorescent dye leakage in the lymphatic vessels in the wounded tissues. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that TP signaling in macrophages promotes lymphangiogenesis and prevents tail lymphedema. TP signaling may be a therapeutic target for improving lymphedema-related symptoms by enhancing lymphangiogenesis.

The role of thromboxane prostanoid receptor signaling in gastric ulcer healing.

The process of gastric ulcer healing includes cell migration, proliferation, angiogenesis and re-epithelialization. Platelets contain angiogenesis stimulating factors that induce angiogenesis. Thromboxane A2 (TXA2 ) not only induces platelet activity but also angiogenesis. This study investigated the role of TXA2 in gastric ulcer healing using TXA2 receptor knockout (TPKO) mice. Gastric ulcer healing was suppressed by treatment with the TXA2 synthase inhibitor OKY-046 and the TXA2 receptor antagonist S-1452 compared with vehicle-treated mice. TPKO showed delayed gastric ulcer healing compared with wild-type mice (WT). The number of microvessels and CD31 expression were lower in TPKO than in WT mice, and TPKO suppressed the expression of transforming growth factor beta (TGF-ß) and vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) in areas around gastric ulcers. Immunofluorescence assays showed that TGF-ß and VEGF-A co-localized with platelets. Gastric ulcer healing was significantly reduced in WT mice transplanted with TPKO compared with WT bone marrow. These results suggested that TP signalling on platelets facilitates gastric ulcer healing through TGF-ß and VEGF-A.

Effect of single and multiple doses of elobixibat, an ileal bile acid transporter inhibitor, on chronic constipation: A randomized controlled trial.

AIMS: Elobixibat is a minimally absorbed ileal bile acid transporter inhibitor. This study aimed to investigate the safety, tolerability, efficacy, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of elobixibat in Japanese patients with chronic constipation. METHODS: This study consisted of single-dose and multiple-dose tests with a dose-escalating design. Sixty patients including females and males were randomized into five dose levels of elobixibat (2.5, 5, 10, 15 or 20 mg, n = 10 per level) and corresponding placebo (n = 2 per group). A crossover design was used to examine food effect in single-dose test. Patients received test tablets once daily for 14 days in multiple-dose test. We assessed pharmacokinetic-dose proportionality, levels of serum high- and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and plasma 7α-hydroxy-4-cholesten-3-one (C4), food effect and sex-specific effect. Adverse events and bowel functions such as bowel movements, stool consistency and straining were also evaluated. RESULTS: Food consumption reduced systemic exposure by around 80% [e.g. least squares mean (ratio of breakfast/no breakfast) maximum plasma concentration: 0.2085 (90% confidence interval, 0.1371-0.3172) at 15 mg] while increased plasma C4 level (P < 0.001). In the multiple-dose test, elobixibat reduced low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and increased C4 whilst unaltering high-density lipoprotein cholesterol level. The increased spontaneous bowel movement frequency was correlated with higher dosage and higher C4 level (R2  = 0.5929 at Week 2). Adverse events were mainly gastrointestinal symptoms, most of which were mild. CONCLUSIONS: Elobixibat should be taken before breakfast. Once-daily administration of elobixibat was found to be safe and tolerated up to 20 mg in female and male patients with chronic constipation.

Angiotensin II subtype 1a receptor signaling in resident hepatic macrophages induces liver metastasis formation.

Liver metastases from colorectal cancer (CRC) are a clinically significant problem. The renin-angiotensin system is involved in tumor growth and metastases. This study was designed to evaluate the role of angiotensin II subtype receptor 1a (AT1a) in the formation of liver metastasis in CRC. A model of liver metastasis was developed by intrasplenic injection of mouse colon cancer (CMT-93) into AT1a knockout mice (AT1aKO) and wild-type (C57BL/6) mice (WT). Compared with WT mice, the liver weight and liver metastatic rate were significantly lower in AT1aKO. The mRNA levels of CD31, transforming growth factor- ß1 (TGF-ß1), and F4/80 were suppressed in AT1aKO compared with WT. Double immunofluorescence analysis showed that the number of accumulated F4/80+ cells expressing TGF-ß1 in metastatic areas was higher in WT than in AT1aKO. The AT1aKO bone marrow (BM) (AT1aKO-BM)→WT showed suppressed formation of liver metastasis compared with WT-BM→WT. However, the formation of metastasis was further suppressed in WT-BM→AT1aKO compared with AT1aKO-BM→WT. In addition, accumulated F4/80+ cells in the liver metastasis were not BM-derived F4/80+ cells, but mainly resident hepatic F4/80+ cells, and these resident hepatic F4/80+ cells were positive for TGF-ß1. Angiotensin II enhanced TGF-ß1 expression in Kupffer cells. Treatment of WT with clodronate liposomes suppressed liver metastasis by diminishing TGF-ß1+ F4/80+ cells accumulation. The formation of liver metastasis correlated with collagen deposition in the metastatic area, which was dependent on AT1a signaling. These results suggested that resident hepatic macrophages induced liver metastasis formation by induction of TGF-ß1 through AT1a signaling.

RAMP1 signaling improves lymphedema and promotes lymphangiogenesis in mice.

BACKGROUND: Secondary lymphedema commonly arises as a complication of cancer surgery and radiation treatment; however, the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Receptor activity-modifying protein 1 (RAMP1) forms a complex with calcitonin receptor-like receptor to generate the receptor for calcitonin gene-related peptide. The present study examined whether RAMP1 plays a role in increased lymphangiogenesis during secondary lymphedema. METHODS: A model of lymphedema was generated by surgical removal of pre-existing lymphatic vessels from the subcutaneous tissue on the tails of RAMP1-deficient (RAMP1-/-) mice and their wild-type (WT) counterparts. The maximum diameter of the tail, lymphangiogenesis, and macrophage recruitment were then examined. RESULTS: Compared with that in WT mice, lymphedema in the tails in RAMP1-/- mice was sustained, with suppressed lymphangiogenesis and reduced expression of vascular endothelial growth factor-C and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 3 at the distal edge of the lesions. The newly formed lymphatic vessels in RAMP1-/- mice were dilated, with impaired lymphatic flow. RAMP1 was expressed by macrophages recruited into edematous tail tissues distal to the wound. The number of macrophages in RAMP1-/- mice was higher than that in WT mice. Expression of messenger RNA encoding M1 macrophage-related genes, including tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1, was higher in RAMP1-/- mice than in WT mice, whereas expression of messenger RNA encoding M2 macrophage genes, including interleukin-10, was lower. CONCLUSIONS: RAMP1 signaling improves lymphedema and accelerates lymphangiogenesis associated with reduced recruitment of pro-inflammatory macrophages.

Thromboxane A synthase enhances blood flow recovery from hindlimb ischemia.

BACKGROUND: Thromboxane A synthase (TXAS) is the enzyme that converts the arachidonic acid derivative prostaglandin H2 to thromboxane A2 (TXA2). TXA2 induces platelet aggregation, vasoconstriction, and proliferation. TXAS and TXA2 receptors or thromboxane prostanoid (TP) receptors are elevated in numerous cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases. Platelets contain numerous angiogenesis stimulating factors. However, the involvement of TXAS on recovery from an ischemic condition is not well understood. We hypothesized that the TXAS-TXA2-TP receptor axis would induce blood flow recovery by platelet activation. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The model of hindlimb ischemia was made by the right femoral artery ligation. The blood flow was estimated by laser Doppler images. Angiogenesis was estimated by the plasma level of the vascular endothelial growth factor and the stromal cell-derived factor-1 and by immunofluorescence analysis against CD31 and P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 (PSGL-1). RESULTS: In wild-type mice, blood flow recovery was enhanced by treatment with murine TXAS-overexpressing fibroblasts (C57-mTXAS) compared with empty vector- (EV) treated fibroblasts (C57-EV). Compared with C57-EV-treated mice, activated platelets (P-selectin(+) platelets) and plasma levels of vascular endothelial growth factor and stromal cell-derived factor-1 were increased in C57-mTXAS-treated mice. The enhanced-blood flow recovery by C57-mTXAS treatment was suppressed in the TP knockout mice (TP(-/-)). The expression of PSGL-1 in endothelial cells around the ischemic area was enhanced by C57-mTXAS treatment in wild-type but not in TP(-/-). CONCLUSIONS: These results indicated that local administration of C57-mTXAS-induced angiogenesis by activated platelets that bind to PSGL-1 on ischemic endothelial cells.

The role of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1 signaling in compensatory contralateral lung growth following unilateral pneumonectomy.

Compensatory lung growth models have been widely used to investigate alveolization because the remaining lung can be kept intact and volume loss can be controlled. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) plays an important role in blood formation during lung growth and repair, but the precise mechanisms involved are poorly understood; therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the role of VEGF signaling in compensatory lung growth. After left pneumonectomy, the right lung weight was higher in VEGF transgenic mice than wild-type (WT) mice. Compensatory lung growth was suppressed significantly in mice injected with a VEGF neutralizing antibody and in VEGF receptor-1 tyrosine kinase-deficient mice (TK(-/-) mice). The mobilization of progenitor cells expressing VEGFR1(+) cells from bone marrow and the recruitment of these cells to lung tissue were also suppressed in the TK(-/-) mice. WT mice transplanted with bone marrow from TK(-/-)transgenic GFP(+) mice had significantly lower numbers of GFP(+)/aquaporin 5(+), GFP(+)/surfactant protein A(+), and GFP(+)/VEGFR1(+) cells than WT mice transplanted with bone marrow from WTGFP(+) mice. The GFP(+)/VEGFR1(+) cells also co-stained for aquaporin 5 and surfactant protein A. Overall, these results suggest that VEGF signaling contributes to compensatory lung growth by mobilizing VEGFR1(+) cells.

The brain and the braincase: a spatial analysis on the midsagittal profile in adult humans.

The spatial relationships between brain and braincase represent a major topic in surgery and evolutionary neuroanatomy. In paleoneurology, neurocranial landmarks are often used as references for brain areas. In this study, we analyze the variation and covariation of midsagittal brain and skull coordinates in a sample of adult modern humans in order to demonstrate spatial associations between hard and soft tissues. The correlation between parietal lobe size and parietal bone size is very low, and there is a marked individual variation. The distances between lobes and bones are partially influenced by the dimensions of the parietal lobes. The main pattern of morphological variability among individuals, associated with the size of the precuneus, apparently does not influence the position of the neurocranial sutures. Therefore, variations in precuneal size modify the distance between the paracentral lobule and bregma, and between the parietal lobe and lambda. Hence, the relative position of the cranial and cerebral landmarks can change as a function of the parietal dimensions. The slight correlation and covariation among these elements suggests a limited degree of spatial integration between soft and hard tissues. Therefore, although the brain influences the cranial size and shape during morphogenesis, the specific position of the cerebral components is sensitive to multiple effects and local factors, without a strict correspondence with the bone landmarks. This absence of correspondent change between brain and skull boundaries suggests caution when making inferences about the brain areas from the position of the cranial sutures. The fact that spatial relationships between cranial and brain areas may vary according to brain proportions must be considered in paleoneurology, when brain anatomy is inferred from cranial evidence.

Clinical impact of lung age on postoperative readmission in non-small cell lung cancer.

BACKGROUND: Recently, the Japanese Respiratory Society (JRS) proposed using lung age (LA) as an indicator of lung function; however, reports regarding the association of LA with the risk of postoperative readmission within 90 d after surgical treatment for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) are limited. Here, we analyze the clinical relationship between LA and readmission within 90 d after surgical treatment for NSCLC. METHODS: A total of 979 patients underwent curative resections for NSCLC from January 2000-September 2012 at the Kitasato University Hospital. We selected patients who required readmission because of surgical complications within 90 d of surgery and retrospectively analyzed various clinical data. LA was calculated based on the formula given by the Japanese Respiratory Society, which relies on preoperative respiratory function. We also calculated the age gap (AG) between the calculated LA and the true age (TA). RESULTS: There were 216 patients who needed to be readmitted within 90 d of surgery, 33 (3%) of whom were hospitalized for surgical complications. Twenty-four patients (73%) had respiratory complications, and 7 patients (21%) died. There were significant differences between the readmitted and no readmitted patients in terms of preoperative factors, such as gender, LA, AG, smoking status, and smoking index (P < 0.05). In addition, there were significant differences in intraoperative blood loss, postoperative complications, histologic type, duration of hospitalization, and hospitalization after surgery (P < 0.05). Multivariate analysis using logistic regression indicated that LA, AG, blood loss, and postoperative complications were independent factors that predicted readmission. Additionally, the 5-y survival rates were 78% and 44% for the no readmitted and readmitted groups, respectively (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The AG between TA and LA was significantly associated with postoperative complications and remained an independent predictive factor after multiple regressions. LA was shown to be a useful factor for predicting the risk of surgery-related readmission within 90 d after surgery for NSCLC.

Virtual reconstruction of the Neanderthal Amud 1 cranium.

OBJECTIVES: We describe a new computer reconstruction to obtain complete anatomical information of the ecto- and endocranium from the imperfectly preserved skull of the Neanderthal Amud 1. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Data were obtained from computed tomography scans of the fossil cranium. Adhesive and plaster were then virtually removed from the original specimen, and the fragments comprising the fossil cranium were separated. These fragments were then mathematically reassembled based on the smoothness of the joints. Both sides of the cranium were reassembled separately, and then aligned based on bilateral symmetry and the distance between the mandibular fossae obtained from the associated mandible. The position of the isolated maxilla was determined based on the position of the mandible that was anatomically articulated to the mandibular fossae. To restore missing basicranial and damaged endocranial regions, the cranium of Forbes' Quarry 1 was warped onto that of La Chapelle-aux-Saints 1, and the resulting composite Neanderthal cranium was then warped onto the reconstructed Amud 1 by an iterative thin-plate spline deformation. RESULTS: Comparison of the computer reconstruction with the original indicated that the newly reconstructed Amud 1 cranium was slightly shorter and wider in the anteroposterior and mediolateral directions, respectively, suggesting that it was relatively more brachycephalic. The endocranial volume was estimated to be 1,736 cm3 , which was quite similar to the original estimated value of 1,740 cm3 . DISCUSSION: This new computer reconstruction enables not only measurement of new cranial metrics, but also inclusion of the Amud 1 specimen in three-dimensional geometric morphometric analyses that were previously difficult due to its incompleteness. Am J Phys Anthropol 158:185-197, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Angiotensin II type 1A receptor signaling facilitates tumor metastasis formation through P-selectin-mediated interaction of tumor cells with platelets and endothelial cells.

Angiotensin II is involved in tumor growth; however, the precise mechanism is not known. Platelets also contribute to tumor growth, and angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1) is expressed on the platelet surface. We hypothesized that interaction of platelets with tumor cells through AT1 receptor signaling promotes tumor metastasis. B16F1 melanoma cells were intravenously injected into Agtr1a knockout mice (AT1a(-/-)) and wild-type littermates (WT); the AT1a(-/-) mice exhibited a reduction in lung colonies. Angiotensin II induced expression of P-selectin on platelets in WT but not in AT1a(-/-) mice. A selective P-selectin neutralizing antibody decreased lung colony numbers in WT but not in AT1a(-/-) mice. Levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and stromal cell-derived factor 1 (SDF-1) receptor in platelets at metastatic locus were lower in AT1a(-/-) mice. Treatment of neutralizing antibodies against VEGF and CXCR4 decreased lung colony numbers in WT but not in AT1a(-/-) mice. In AT1a(-/-) mice, and both mobilization of progenitor cells expressing CXCR4(+)VEGFR1(+) cells from bone marrow and their recruitment to lung tissues were suppressed. These results suggest that AT1A signaling plays a critical role in tumor metastasis through P-selectin-mediated interactions of platelets with tumor and endothelial cells and through the AT1A signaling-dependent production of VEGF and SDF-1, which may be involved in mobilization of CXCR4(+)VEGFR1(+) cells.

Deletion of RAMP1 Signaling Enhances Diet-induced Obesity and Fat Absorption via Intestinal Lacteals in Mice.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Intestinal lymphatic vessels (lacteals) play a critical role in the absorption and transport of dietary lipids into the circulation. Calcitonin gene-related peptide and receptor activity-modifying protein 1 (RAMP1) are involved in lymphatic vessel growth. This study aimed to examine the role of RAMP1 signaling in lacteal morphology and function in response to a high-fat diet (HFD). MATERIALS AND METHODS: RAMP1 deficient (RAMP1-/-) or wild-type (WT) mice were fed a normal diet (ND) or HFD for 8 weeks. RESULTS: RAMP1-/- mice fed a HFD had increased body weights compared to WT mice fed a HFD, which was associated with high levels of total cholesterol, triglycerides, and glucose. HFD-fed RAMP1-/- mice had shorter and wider lacteals than HFD-fed WT mice. HFD-fed RAMP1-/- mice had lower levels of lymphatic endothelial cell gene markers including vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 3 (VEGFR3) and lymphatic vascular growth factor VEGF-C than HFD-fed WT mice. The concentration of an absorbed lipid tracer in HFD-fed RAMP1-/- mice was higher than that in HFD-fed WT mice. The zipper-like continuous junctions were predominant in HFD-fed WT mice, while the button-like discontinuous junctions were predominant in HFD-fed RAMP1-/- mice. CONCLUSION: Deletion of RAMP1 signaling suppressed lacteal growth and VEGF-C/VEGFR3 expression but accelerated the uptake and transport of dietary fats through discontinuous junctions of lacteals, leading to excessive obesity. Specific activation of RAMP1 signaling may represent a target for the therapeutic management of diet-induced obesity.

Prostanoids Regulate Angiogenesis and Lymphangiogenesis in Pathological Conditions.

Angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels from the preexistent microvasculature, is an essential component of wound repair and tumor growth. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs that suppress prostanoid biosynthesis are known to suppress the incidence and progression of malignancies including colorectal cancers, and also to delay the wound healing. However, the precise mechanisms are not fully elucidated. Accumulated results obtained from prostanoid receptor knockout mice indicate that a prostaglandin E-type receptor signaling EP3 in the host microenvironment is critical in tumor angiogenesis inducing vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A). Further, lymphangiogenesis was also enhanced by EP signaling via VEGF-C/D inductions in pathological settings. These indicate the importance of EP receptor to facilitate angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis in vivo. Prostanoids act beyond their commonly understood activities in smooth muscle contraction and vasoactivity, both of which are quick responses elicited within several seconds on stimulations. Prostanoid receptor signaling will be a potential therapeutic target for disease conditions related to angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis.

Cytokine-mediated deployment of SDF-1 induces revascularization through recruitment of CXCR4+ hemangiocytes.

The mechanisms through which hematopoietic cytokines accelerate revascularization are unknown. Here, we show that the magnitude of cytokine-mediated release of SDF-1 from platelets and the recruitment of nonendothelial CXCR4+ VEGFR1+ hematopoietic progenitors, 'hemangiocytes,' constitute the major determinant of revascularization. Soluble Kit-ligand (sKitL), thrombopoietin (TPO, encoded by Thpo) and, to a lesser extent, erythropoietin (EPO) and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) induced the release of SDF-1 from platelets, enhancing neovascularization through mobilization of CXCR4+ VEGFR1+ hemangiocytes. Although revascularization of ischemic hindlimbs was partially diminished in mice deficient in both GM-CSF and G-CSF (Csf2-/- Csf3-/-), profound impairment in neovascularization was detected in sKitL-deficient Mmp9-/- as well as thrombocytopenic Thpo-/- and TPO receptor-deficient (Mpl-/-) mice. SDF-1-mediated mobilization and incorporation of hemangiocytes into ischemic limbs were impaired in Thpo-/-, Mpl-/- and Mmp9-/- mice. Transplantation of CXCR4+ VEGFR1+ hemangiocytes into Mmp9-/- mice restored revascularization, whereas inhibition of CXCR4 abrogated cytokine- and VEGF-A-mediated mobilization of CXCR4+ VEGFR1+ cells and suppressed angiogenesis. In conclusion, hematopoietic cytokines, through graded deployment of SDF-1 from platelets, support mobilization and recruitment of CXCR4+ VEGFR1+ hemangiocytes, whereas VEGFR1 is essential for their angiogenic competency for augmenting revascularization. Delivery of SDF-1 may be effective in restoring angiogenesis in individuals with vasculopathies.

Responses of hepatic sinusoidal cells to liver ischemia-reperfusion injury.

The liver displays a remarkable regenerative capacity in response to acute liver injury. In addition to the proliferation of hepatocytes during liver regeneration, non-parenchymal cells, including liver macrophages, liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs), and hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) play critical roles in liver repair and regeneration. Liver ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) is a major cause of increased liver damage during liver resection, transplantation, and trauma. Impaired liver repair increases postoperative morbidity and mortality of patients who underwent liver surgery. Successful liver repair and regeneration after liver IRI requires coordinated interplay and synergic actions between hepatic resident cells and recruited cell components. However, the underlying mechanisms of liver repair after liver IRI are not well understood. Recent technological advances have revealed the heterogeneity of each liver cell component in the steady state and diseased livers. In this review, we describe the progress in the biology of liver non-parenchymal cells obtained from novel technological advances. We address the functional role of each cell component in response to liver IRI and the interactions between diverse immune repertoires and non-hematopoietic cell populations during the course of liver repair after liver IRI. We also discuss how these findings can help in the design of novel therapeutic approaches. Growing insights into the cellular interactions during liver IRI would enhance the pathology of liver IRI understanding comprehensively and further develop the strategies for improvement of liver repair.

Inhibition of TP signaling promotes endometriosis growth and neovascularization.

Endometriosis is highly dependent on angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis. Prostaglandin E2, an arachidonic acid metabolite, has been shown to promote the formation of new blood and lymphatic vessels. However, the role of another arachidonic acid metabolite, thromboxane A2 (TXA2) in angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis during endometriosis remains largely unexplored. Using a murine model of ectopic endometrial transplantation, fragments from the endometrium of WT donor mice were transplanted into the peritoneal walls of recipient WT mice (WT→WT), resulting in an increase in both the area and density of blood and lymphatic vessels. Upon transplantation of endometrial tissue from thromboxane prostanoid (TP) receptor (TXA2 receptor)­deficient (TP­/­) mice into TP­/­ mice (TP­/­â†’TP­/­), an increase in implant growth, angiogenesis, and lymphangiogenesis were observed along with upregulation of pro­angiogenic and lymphangiogenic factors, including vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGFs). Similar results were obtained using a thromboxane synthase (TXS) inhibitor in WT→WT mice. Furthermore, TP­/­â†’TP­/­ mice had a higher number of F4/80+ cells than that of WT→WT mice, with increased expression of genes related to the anti­inflammatory macrophage phenotype in endometrial lesions. In cultured bone marrow (BM)­derived macrophages, the levels of VEGF­A, VEGF­C, and VEGF­D decreased in a TP­dependent manner. Furthermore, TP signaling affected the polarization of cultured BM­derived macrophages to the anti­inflammatory phenotype. These findings imply that inhibition of TP signaling promotes endometrial implant growth and neovascularization.

The microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1/prostaglandin E2 axis induces recovery from ischaemia via recruitment of regulatory T cells.

AIMS: Microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 (mPGES-1)/prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) induces angiogenesis through the prostaglandin E2 receptor (EP1-4). Among immune cells, regulatory T cells (Tregs), which inhibit immune responses, have been implicated in angiogenesis, and PGE2 is known to modulate the function and differentiation of Tregs. We hypothesized that mPGES-1/PGE2-EP signalling could contribute to recovery from ischaemic conditions by promoting the accumulation of Tregs. METHODS AND RESULTS: Wild-type (WT), mPGES-1-deficient (mPges-1-/-), and EP4 receptor-deficient (Ep4-/-) male mice, 6-8 weeks old, were used. Hindlimb ischaemia was induced by femoral artery ligation. Recovery from ischaemia was suppressed in mPges-1-/- mice and compared with WT mice. The number of accumulated forkhead box protein P3 (FoxP3)+ cells in ischaemic muscle tissue was decreased in mPges-1-/- mice compared with that in WT mice. Expression levels of transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß) and stromal cell derived factor-1 (SDF-1) in ischaemic tissue were also suppressed in mPges-1-/- mice. The number of accumulated FoxP3+ cells and blood flow recovery were suppressed when Tregs were depleted by injecting antibody against folate receptor 4 in WT mice but not in mPges-1-/- mice. Recovery from ischaemia was significantly suppressed in Ep4-/- mice compared with that in WT mice. Furthermore, mRNA levels of Foxp3 and Tgf-ß were suppressed in Ep4-/- mice. Moreover, the number of accumulated FoxP3+ cells in ischaemic tissue was diminished in Ep4-/- mice compared with that in Ep4+/+ mice. CONCLUSION: These findings suggested that mPGES-1/PGE2 induced neovascularization from ischaemia via EP4 by promoting the accumulation of Tregs. Highly selective EP4 agonists could be useful for the treatment of peripheral artery disease.

A biologically active lipid, thromboxane, as a regulator of angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis.

Thromboxane (TX) and prostaglandins are metabolites of arachidonic acid, a twenty-carbon unsaturated fatty acid, and have a variety of actions that are exerted via specific receptors. Angiogenesis is defined as the formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing vascular beds and is a critical component of pathological conditions, including inflammation and cancer. Lymphatic vessels play crucial roles in the regulation of interstitial fluid, immune surveillance, and the absorption of dietary fat from the intestine; and they are also involved in the pathogenesis of various diseases. Similar to angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis, the formation of new lymphatic vessels, is a critical component of pathological conditions. The TP-dependent accumulation of platelets in microvessels has been reported to enhance angiogenesis under pathological conditions. Although the roles of some growth factors and cytokines in angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis have been well characterized, accumulating evidence suggests that TX induces the production of proangiogenic and prolymphangiogenic factors through the activation of adenylate cyclase, and upregulates angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis under disease conditions. In this review, we discuss the role of TX as a regulator of angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis, and its emerging importance as a therapeutic target.

Thromboxane A2 receptor signaling facilitates tumor colonization through P-selectin-mediated interaction of tumor cells with platelets and endothelial cells.

Thromboxane A(2) (TXA(2) ) is a prostanoid formed by thromboxane synthase using the cyclooxygenase product, prostaglandin H(2), as the substrate. TXA(2) was shown to enhance tumor metastasis, but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. B16F1 melanoma cells were intravenously injected into TXA(2) receptor (TP) knockout mice (TP(-/-) ) and wild-type littermates (WT). TP(-/-) showed a reduction in B16F1 lung colonization and mortality rate, which were associated with a decreased number of platelets. Platelet activation as assessed by P-selectin expression was suppressed in TP(-/-) . A selective P-selectin neutralizing antibody decreased the lung colonization in WT mice, but not in TP(-/-) . The expression of P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 in B16F1 and HUVEC were enhanced by treatment with U46619, a thromboxane analog. The plasma levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and stromal-derived factor (SDF)-1 were lower in TP(-/-) . In TP(-/-) , the mobilization of progenitor cells expressing CXCR4(+) VEGFR1(+) from bone marrow and the recruitment of those cells to lung tissues were suppressed. These results suggest that TP signaling plays a critical role in tumor colonization through P-selectin-mediated interactions between platelets-tumor cells and tumor cells-endothelial cells through the TP signaling-dependent production of VEGF and SDF-1, which might be involved in the mobilization of VEGFR1(+) CXCR4(+) cells. Blockade of TP signaling might be useful in the treatment of tumor metastasis.

Morphological invariant of the midsagittal deep brain anatomy between humans and African great apes.

OBJECTIVES: Efforts have been made to mathematically reconstruct the brain morphology from human fossil crania to clarify the evolutionary changes in the brain that are associated with the emergence of human cognitive ability. However, because conventional reconstruction methods are based solely on the endocranial shape, deep brain structures cannot be estimated with sufficient accuracy. Our study aims to investigate the possible morphological correspondence between the cranial and deep brain morphologies based on humans and African great apes, with the goal of a more precise reconstruction of fossil brains. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Midsagittal endocranial and deep brain landmarks were obtained from magnetic resonance images of humans and three species of African great apes. The average midsagittal endocranial profile of all four species was calculated after Procrustes registration. The spatial deformation function from each of the endocranial profiles to the average endocranial profile was defined, and the brain landmarks enclosed in the endocranium were transformed using the deformation function to evaluate the interspecific variabilities of the positions of the brain landmarks on the average endocranial profile. RESULTS: The interspecific differences in the shape-normalized positions of the corpus callosum, anterior commissure, thalamus center, and brainstem were approximately within the range of 2% of the human cranial length, indicating that the interspecific variabilities of the positions of these deep brain structures were relatively small among the four species. DISCUSSION: Such an invariant relationship of the deep brain structure and the endocranium that encloses the brain can potentially be utilized to reconstruct the brains of fossil hominins.