Occurrence, antimicrobial susceptibility, and resistance genes of Staphylococcus aureus in milk and milk products in the Arsi highlands of Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: In Ethiopia, milk production and handling practices often lack proper hygiene measures, leading to the potential contamination of milk and milk products with Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), including methicillin-resistant strains, posing significant public health concerns. This study aimed to investigate the occurrence, antimicrobial susceptibility profiles and presence of resistance genes in S. aureus strains isolated from milk and milk products. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted in the Arsi highlands, Oromia, Ethiopia from March 2022 to February 2023. A total of 503 milk and milk product samples were collected, comprising 259 raw milk, 219 cottage cheese, and 25 traditional yogurt samples. S. aureus isolation and coagulase-positive staphylococci enumeration were performed using Baird-Parker agar supplemented with tellurite and egg yolk. S. aureus was further characterized based on colony morphology, Gram stain, mannitol fermentation, catalase test, and coagulase test. Phenotypic antimicrobial resistance was assessed using the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method, while the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was employed for confirming the presence of S. aureus and detecting antimicrobial resistance genes. RESULTS: S. aureus was detected in 24.9% of the milk and milk products, with the highest occurrence in raw milk (40.9%), followed by yogurt (20%), and cottage cheese (6.4%). The geometric mean for coagulase-positive staphylococci counts in raw milk, yogurt, and cottage cheese was 4.6, 3.8, and 3.2 log10 CFU/mL, respectively. Antimicrobial resistance analysis revealed high levels of resistance to ampicillin (89.7%) and penicillin G (87.2%), with 71.8% of the isolates demonstrating multidrug resistance. Of the 16 S. aureus isolates analyzed using PCR, all were found to carry the nuc gene, with the mecA and blaZ genes detected in 50% of these isolates each. CONCLUSION: This study revealed the widespread distribution of S. aureus in milk and milk products in the Arsi highlands of Ethiopia. The isolates displayed high resistance to ampicillin and penicillin, with a concerning level of multidrug resistance. The detection of the mecA and blaZ genes in selected isolates is of particular concern, highlighting a potential public health hazard and posing a challenge to effective antimicrobial treatment. These findings highlight the urgent need to enhance hygiene standards in milk and milk product handling and promote the rational use of antimicrobial drugs. Provision of adequate training for all individuals involved in the dairy sector can help minimize contamination. These measures are crucial in addressing the threats posed by S. aureus, including methicillin-resistant strains, and ensuring the safety of milk and its products for consumers.

Factors affecting the microbiological quality and contamination of farm bulk milk by Staphylococcus aureus in dairy farms in Asella, Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: The determination of the microbiological quality and safety of raw milk and the associated influencing factors at the farm level is very critical given that the quality or safety of subsequent products that are further produced depends on this. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the microbiological quality and safety of bulk milk and identify associated risk factors, and assess the presence/absence of S. aureus in bulk milk with potential contaminating sources in dairy farms in Asella, Ethiopia. RESULTS: The geometric means of bacterial counts in farm bulk milk were 5.25 log cfu/ml, 3.1 log cfu/ml and 2.97 log cfu/ml for total bacterial count (TBC), coliform count (CC) and coagulase-positive staphylococci count (CPS), respectively. Of the 50 dairy farms, 66, 88, and 32% had TBC, CC and CPS counts, respectively, that exceeded the standard international limits for raw cow's milk intended for direct human consumption. TBC tended to increase as CC increased in bulk milk (r = 0.5). In the final regression model, increased TBC, CC and the contamination of farm bulk milk by S. aureus were significantly associated with dirty barns, dirty cows and soiled udder and teats. TBC was higher during the rainy season than during the dry season. The reported practice of washing teats with warm water significantly decreased CC and CPS. The occurrence of S. aureus was significantly (p < 0.05) higher in bulk farm milk (42%) than in pooled udder milk (37.3%), teat swabs (22.5%), milkers' hand swabs (18%), bulking bucket swabs (16.7%), milking container swabs (14%), and water for cleaning of udder and milkers' hands (10%). The questionnaire survey result showed widespred raw milk consumption habits, low level of training and poor hygienic milking practices. CONCLUSIONS: This study revealed low-quality bulk farm milk with high bacterial counts and a high occurrence of S. aureus. This indicates the potential food safety risks due to consumption of raw milk or its products. This study suggests awareness creation to dairy farmers and the public on hygienic milk production and heat treatment of milk before consumption.

Occurrence of Escherichia Coli O157:H7 in lactating cows and dairy farm environment and the antimicrobial susceptibility pattern at Adami Tulu Jido Kombolcha District, Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Food-borne pathogens are the foremost causes of food-borne human illness in the world. Escherichia coli O157:H7 (E. coli O157:H7) is one of the major food-borne pathogenic bacteria around the world. Though evidence is lacking; especially in developing countries like Ethiopia, the potential health impact of E. coli O157:H7 can be high where food production, handling and consumption is often taking place under unhygienic conditions. In Ethiopia, studies reported E. coli and E. coli O157: H7 from food of animal origin, mainly meat and milk, and also animal surfaces and feces. The objective of the present study was to investigate the occurrence of E. coli O157:H7 in raw milk and the dairy production farm environment and further assess the antimicrobial resistance pattern of the bacterium. METHODS: Samples of milk from individual lactating cows' and dairy farm environmental samples (feces, water and manure) were collected at Adami Tulu Jido Kombolcha district (ATJKD) and analyzed for the presence of E. coli O157:H7. Standard microbiological techniques including culture, biochemical testing and serological test were performed to isolate and identify the bacterium. The bacterial isolates were evaluated for antimicrobial susceptibility patterns using disk diffusion method. A questionnaire was used to collect possible factors affecting E. coli O157:H7 occurrence. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of E. coli O157:H7 was 4.7% (19/408) (95% CI: 2.6; 6.7). Out of 19 E. coli O157:H7 isolates, 4/50, 7/154, 2/50, and 6/154 were from water, milk, manure, and feces samples, respectively. From potential risk factors considered in this study area, floor type, cleaning of pens, milking location and hand washing during the time of milking were significantly associated with the occurrence of E. coli O157:H7. The antimicrobial susceptibility pattern indicated varying degrees of resistance. All of the isolates were found to be resistant ampicillin, cephalothin, and rifampin, and 100% susceptibility was observed against the drugs: chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, gentamicin, nalidixic acid, kanamycin, and tetracycline. Concerning streptomycin, 63.15% of the isolates were susceptible and 36.8% showed intermediate susceptibility. CONCLUSIONS: The occurrence of multi-drug resistance E. coli O157:H7 observed both in lactating cows and in dairy farm environments can sustain a continuous transmission of the bacteria. The occurrence of multidrug-resistant E. coli o157:H7could hamper the control and prevention efforts.

Knowledge, attitude and practice of tomato retailers towards hygiene and food safety in Harar and Dire Dawa, Ethiopia.

In this study, we assessed knowledge, attitude, and practices (KAP) related to tomato hygiene and food safety, among tomato vendors in the Ethiopian cities of Harar and Dire Dawa. From a total of 1498 tomato retail market vendors identified in the two cities through vendor mapping exercises, 151 outlets were randomly selected for a cross-sectional KAP survey on tomato handling, marketing, loss due to damage, safety, and hygienic practice. Tomato vendors claimed that they knew about food safety and hygiene, and risks associated with raw tomatoes. We found considerable variation in food safety knowledge, barriers, and practices during handling and marketing. The major concern of tomato traders in terms of food safety for vegetables was contamination with dirt. Around 17% of street vendors did not know about the importance of water quality and cleanliness for food safety. About 20% of tomato traders washed tomatoes after they purchased them and 43% and 14% of respondents who practiced tomato washing revealed that they cannot get the quantity and quality of water needed, respectively. Tomatoes were displayed in direct sunlight in about 85% of stalls. About 37% of vendors said rodents were present at night and could contact surfaces tomatoes are displayed on. For about 40% of outlets one or more flies were seen to be present on a third to two-thirds of their tomatoes. Overall, 40% of respondents reported they do not have adequate toilet facilities and 20% of those that use a toilet do not have water for washing hands after. The study identified areas that should be targeted by interventions aiming to improve food safety in this setting, however, without improvements in basic infrastructure to provide the pre-requisites for food safety the impact of small-scale food safety interventions may be limited.

MILK Symposium review: Community-tailored training to improve the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of women regarding hygienic milk production and handling in Borana pastoral area of southern Ethiopia.

Milk and milk products are essential in the diets of the Borana pastoral community in Ethiopia. Traditional handling and processing of dairy products using basic equipment and infrastructure coupled with a preference for raw milk consumption pose potential health risks to consumers. We tested the effect of an intervention designed to improve the hygienic handling and safe consumption of milk on the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) of women who produce and sell dairy products. The intervention consisted of 16 h of training on good milk production practices and prevention of milk-borne diseases. A total of 120 women were trained and their KAP assessed at baseline (pretraining), immediately after training, and 6 mo after training. Overall, training increased the knowledge score of the participants from 75.6 to 91.4% in the immediate post-training assessment, and to 90.0% at 6 mo post-training. Compared with pretraining (58.8%), we found a statistically significant difference in the overall attitude score at the immediate post-training evaluation (64.7%) but not 6 mo after (61.4%). We observed a similar increase in the understanding of correct practices from 49.5% at pretraining to 64.7% 6 mo following the training. For some desirable attitudes and practices, the proportion of women reporting adoption at pretraining was low and the change derived from training still left one-third of respondents displaying a negative attitude and a quarter of them reporting wrong practices. We recommend that future training interventions be complemented with locally adaptable technologies, provision of incentives, and creation of an enabling environment including improved access to clean water and sanitation facilities to affect not only knowledge, but also attitudes and ultimately practices in the long term.

Bacteriological quality and safety of ready-to-consume milk and naturally fermented milk in Borana pastoral area, southern Ethiopia.

Milk and milk products play an important role in the diet of pastoralists in Ethiopia. However, only few studies have been conducted on the microbial contamination of milk and milk products in pastoral areas. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to assess the hygiene and safety of ready-to-consume milk and traditionally produced fermented milk products (yogurt) in Borana. A total of 203 raw milk and milk product samples collected from different points along the milk production and handling chains were tested for Escherichia coli, E. coli O157:H7, and Staphylococcus aureus. E. coli was detected in 51.7% of the analyzed samples with a mean count of 2.5 logCFU/ml. The study revealed that 10.8% and 2.5% of the milk and dairy product samples harbor S. aureus and E. coli O157:H7, respectively. Detection of E. coli O157:H7 in ready-to-consume milk has potential health implications for consumers in an area where raw milk consumption is common. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the isolation of E. coli O157:H7 from milk in pastoral systems in Ethiopia.

Occurrence of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in cattle feces and contamination of carcass and various contact surfaces in abattoir and butcher shops of Hawassa, Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Despite of the sanitation measures in municipal abattoirs to reduce contamination, Escherichia coli continues to be a health hazard. The present study was conducted on 150 apparently healthy slaughtered cattle at municipal abattoir and in 50 different butcher shops in Hawassa town, Ethiopia. The objectives of the study were investigating the occurrence and antimicrobial resistance of E. coli O157:H7 isolated from fecal samples, carcasses swab, contacts surfaces (swabs of meat handlers hands, knife and clothes of meat transporters) as well as from butcher shops (meat samples, swabs from cutting board swab, butcher men hand and knife surface). E. coli O157:H7 was isolated and identified using bacteriological culture, biochemical tests and Biolog identification system. All E. coli O157:H7 isolates were then checked for their antimicrobial susceptibility pattern using eleven selected antimicrobial discs. RESULTS: Of the entire set of 630 samples, 2.4% (15/630) (95% CI = 1.3-3.9%) were positive for E. coli O157:H7. When disaggregated by the sources of the samples, E. coli O157:H7 were prevalent in 2.8% (11 of 390) of the abattoir samples, of which 4.7% of the fecal sample and 2.7% of the carcass swabs. And E. coli O157:H7 were positive in 1.7% (4 of 240) of butcher shop specimens of which 2% of meat sample and 3.3% of Cutting board swabs. No statistically significant difference in the prevalence of E. coli 0157: H7 between sex, origin, and breed of cattle. The isolated E. coli O157:H7 were found to be100% susceptible to cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, gentamycin, kanamycin and nalidixic acid. CONCLUSION: This study concludes the occurrence of E. coli O157:H7 and the presence of multiple antibiotic resistance profiles in cattle slaughtered at Hawassa municipal abattoir and retail meat sold at butcher shops. This indicates high risk to public health especially in Ethiopia where many people consume raw or under cooked meat. Regulatory control of antibiotics usage in livestock production and pharmaco-epidemiological surveillance in food animals and animal products is hereby recommended to ensure consumer safety.

Important knowledge gaps among pastoralists on causes and treatment of udder health problems in livestock in southern Ethiopia: results of qualitative investigation.

BACKGROUND: Ethiopia has high prevalences of udder health problems including clinical and subclinical mastitis across production systems in different livestock species. Previous studies on udder health problems have largely focused on identification of mastitis causing microbial pathogens and associated risk factors. However, relatively little is known about the knowledge and beliefs of livestock keepers regarding udder health problems. An understanding of the beliefs on the other hand would facilitate effective communication between livestock keepers and animal health professionals. Therefore, this study aimed at exploring the knowledge and belief surrounding the causes, clinical signs and treatments for udder health problems in (agro-) pastoral communities in southern Ethiopia using qualitative investigation. RESULTS: The result showed that udder health problem, locally known as 'dhukkuba muchaa', which translates to 'disease of teats', was classified into three main types: (1) tick infestation (dirandisa), (2) swelling of udder often with pus discharge (nyaqarsa) and (3) acute mastitis caused by evil eye (buda) with 'bloody milk'. Tick infestation was perceived to directly cause mechanical damage to udder tissue or to resulting in swelling leading to nyaqarsa. Our analysis also revealed the strong misperception that acute and severe swelling of udder was caused by evil eye. According to the pastoralists, cows with large udders in the late pregnancy are prone to evil eye infliction upon giving birth. The pastoralists often treat udder health problems by combining both modern and traditional methods. Removal of ticks by hand and acarcide application were the preferred methods for limiting tick infestation while swelling and evil eye cases were treated with antibiotics (e.g. oxytetracycline). The study also revealed that specific herbs, only known by the herbalists, were used for traditional treatment of udder health. Although this information could not be divulged at the time, it should form the subject of further investigation. Traditional treatment for evil eye was often administered through nostrils, raising questions about its effectiveness. CONCLUSION: The narration given by the pastoralists in associating tick infestation with udder health problems was compatible with existing scientific evidences. In this respect, such local knowledge can be better utilized for the educational messages targeting control and management of tick infestation in livestock. However, the misperception of causes for acute udder swelling as evil eye can be problematic as far as the application of appropriate treatment and management of the problem is concerned. The misperception can significantly impact the welfare of animals and highlights the need for capacity building of the pastoralists on the causes and treatment of udder health problems.

Microbial quality of water in rural households of Ethiopia: implications for milk safety and public health.

Waterborne pathogenic agents affect the health of people either by direct consumption of contaminated water or by its indirect use in food production and/or processing. Studies on the microbiological quality of water in rural areas of Ethiopia are still limited, especially at the household level. The aim of the present study was to assess the microbial quality of water from different sources in rural households in two districts of the Ethiopian Rift Valley area. The correlation between E. coli counts in water and milk was also investigated. In total, 233 water samples (126 collected in dry and 107 in wet season) and 53 milk samples (19 from raw milk and 36 from processed milk products) were analyzed for E. coli contamination. The overall prevalence of E. coli in water samples was 54.9% (n = 233). In most of the analyzed samples, a higher prevalence of E. coli was recorded during the wet compared to the dry season. The highest load of E. coli was detected in water samples from dugouts. The quality of raw milk and traditionally-processed milk products showed variations between districts, and the traditionally-processed milk products were found to contain higher E. coli loads than raw milk. The correlation between the E. coli counts in water and milk only showed a weak but positive relationship (r = 0.1). Taking E. coli as a proxy for water quality, the microbiological quality of water consumed in the study area was found to be very poor, posing a potential food safety and health risk to the rural communities.

Perceptions of rural and urban residents in Borana pastoral and agro-pastoral areas in Ethiopia related to milk adulteration.

Milk is a nutritious food that plays a great role in the diets of a society largely dependent on livestock production. On the other hand, contaminants can enter milk naturally or intentionally, causing a negative impact on the health of consumers. Milk adulteration is a wide concern in the dairy industry in many countries, including Ethiopia, with a subsequent negative impact on its nutritive value and potentially affecting the health of consumers. This study was designed to assess the perceptions of rural and urban residents in Borana pastoral and agro-pastoral areas in Ethiopia related to milk adulteration. It was also aimed at identifying the potential reasons for milk adulteration in the area. A semi-structured questionnaire and focus group discussions (FGDs) were used to collect quantitative and qualitative data, respectively, focusing on the types of substances added to milk and the reasons for the addition of the substances. In rural and urban areas, 73.1% and 91.7% of respondents reported suspicion of the addition of nonmilk substances or milk of other animal species to cow's milk before selling, respectively. According to the qualitative data, most reported adulterants were water and 'pasta or rice water' (a murky fluid left after boiling rice or pasta). Respondents mentioned that they identify adulterated milk by observation or tasting. Economic gain was the primary perceived reason to adulterate the milk according to the study participants. The respondents had concerns about the quality and safety of milk associated with adulteration in the area. The weak enforcement of regulations related to milk quality and marketing as well as the inadequacy of capacity for the detection of adulteration were mentioned as gaps toward mitigating the problems. Awareness creation about the negative impacts of milk adulteration among the community supported by strategies for regulation, such as improving regular testing of milk and taking actions on adulterated milk, is recommended to tackle consumer concerns around milk adulteration in the area.

Current and potential use of animal disease data by stakeholders in the global south and north.

What cannot be measured will not be managed. The Global Burden of Animal Diseases (GBADs) will generate information on animal disease burdens by species, production system, type and gender of farmer and consumer, geographical region, and time period. To understand the demand for burden of animal disease (BAD) data and how end-users might benefit from this, we reviewed the literature on animal diseases prioritisation processes (ADPP) and conducted a survey of BAD information users. The survey covered their current use of data and prioritizations as well as their needs for different, more, and better information. We identified representative (geography, sector, species) BAD experts from the authors' networks and publicly available documents and e-mailed 1485 experts. Of 791 experts successfully contacted, 271 responded (34% response rate), and 185 complete and valid responses were obtained. Most respondents came from the public sector followed by academia/research, and most were affiliated to institutions in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Of the six ADPPs commonly featured in literature, only three were recognised by more than 40% of experts. An additional 23 ADPPs were used. Awareness of ADDPs varied significantly by respondents. Respondents ranked animal disease priorities. We used exploded logit to combine first, second and third disease priorities to better understand prioritzation and their determinants. Expert priorities differed significantly from priorities identified by the ADDPs, and also from the priorities stated veterinary services as reported in a survey for a World Organisation of Animal Health (WOAH) technical item. Respondents identified 15 different uses of BAD data. The most common use was presenting evidence (publications, official reports, followed by disease management, policy development and proposal writing). Few used disease data for prioritzation or resource allocation, fewer routinely used economic data for decision making, and less than half were aware of the use of decision support tools (DSTs). Nearly all respondents considered current BAD metrics inadequate, most considered animal health information insufficiently available and not evidence-based, and most expressed concerns that decision-making processes related to animal health lacked transparency and fairness. Cluster analysis suggested three clusters of BAD users and will inform DSTs to help them better meet their specific objectives. We conclude that there is a lack of satisfaction with current BAD information, and with existing ADDPs, contributing to sub-optimal decision making. Improved BAD data would have multiple uses by different stakeholders leading to better evidenced decisions and policies; moreover, clients will need support (including DSTs) to optimally use BAD information.

Prevalence, Molecular Detection, and Antimicrobial Resistance of Salmonella Isolates from Poultry Farms across Central Ethiopia: A Cross-Sectional Study in Urban and Peri-Urban Areas.

A cross-sectional study was conducted to assess the prevalence, molecular detection, and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella isolates within 162 poultry farms in selected urban and peri-urban areas of central Ethiopia. A total of 1515 samples, including cloacal swabs (n = 763), fresh fecal droppings (n = 188), litter (n = 188), feed (n = 188), and water (n = 188), were bacteriologically tested. The molecular detection of some culture-positive isolates was performed via polymerase chain reaction (PCR) by targeting spy and sdfl genes for Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Enteritidis, respectively. Risk factors for the occurrence of the bacterial isolates were assessed. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of PCR-confirmed Salmonella isolates was conducted using 12 antibiotics. In this study, it was observed that 50.6% of the farms were positive for Salmonella. The overall sample-level prevalence of Salmonella was 14.4%. Among the analyzed risk factors, the type of production, breed, and sample type demonstrated a statistically significant association (p < 0.05) with the bacteriological prevalence of Salmonella. The PCR test disclosed that 45.5% (15/33) and 23.3% (10/43) of the isolates were positive for genes of Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Enteritidis, respectively. The antimicrobial susceptibility test disclosed multi-drug resistance to ten of the tested antibiotics that belong to different classes. Substantial isolation of Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Enteritidis in poultry and on poultry farms, along with the existence of multi-drug resistant isolates, poses an alarming risk of zoonotic and food safety issues. Hence, routine flock testing, farm surveillance, biosecurity intervention, stringent antimicrobial use regulations, and policy support for the sector are highly needed.

Water for human and livestock consumption in rural settings of Ethiopia: assessments of quality and health aspects.

The study aimed to assess the quality and health aspects of water intended for human and livestock consumption in two rural districts of the Rift Valley of Ethiopia. The study involved two parts: the first consisted of a questionnaire survey and farmers' group discussions, complemented by secondary health data, and the second part determined the chemical (total dissolved solids, pH, manganese, hexa-valent chromium, fluoride) and microbiological quality of different water sources during dry and wet seasons. The result showed a lack of sustainable access to safe water in the communities. Industrial pollution and mismanagement of water sources by human and livestock was found to be a source of potential health risk. Potentially linked human health problems like malaria, diarrhoea and gastrointestinal parasites were common in the districts. Overall, 76% of the assessed water sources (n = 25) failed to comply with World Health Organization guidelines for human drinking water, for at least one assessed parameter, mostly irrespective of the season. The non-compliance was mainly attributed to Escherichia coli contamination and/or high fluoride concentration. At least 20% of the water samples were also found to be unfit for livestock consumption based on assessed chemical parameters in both dry and wet seasons. To minimize the health risk associated with mismanagement and poor quality of water sources in the area, targeted action in the protection of surface water sources should be given priority.

Constraints and challenges of meeting the water requirements of livestock in Ethiopia: cases of Lume and Siraro districts.

Compared to the total water use in livestock production systems, water for livestock drinking is small in amount but is an important requirement for health and productivity of animals. This study was carried out to assess constraints and challenges of meeting drinking water requirements of livestock in rural mixed smallholder crop-livestock farming districts in the Ethiopian Rift Valley area. Data was collected by individual interviews with randomly selected respondents and farmer group discussions. Farmers ranked feed and water scarcity as the two most important constraints for livestock husbandry, although the ranking order differed between districts and villages. Poor quality water was a concern for the communities in proximity to urban settlements or industrial establishments. Water provision for livestock was challenging during the dry season, since alternative water sources dried up or were polluted. Though rainwater harvesting by dugout constructions was practiced to cope with water scarcity, farmers indicated that mismanagement of the harvested water was posing health risks on both livestock and people. A sustainable water provision for livestock in the area, thus, depends on use of different water sources (intermittent or perennial) that should be properly managed. Industrial establishments should adopt an environment-friendly production to minimize pollution of water resources used for livestock consumption. Technical support to farmers is required in proper design and use of existing rainwater harvesting systems. Further investigations are recommended on effect of poor quality water (perceived by farmers) on performance of livestock.

Livestock producers' knowledge, attitude, and behavior (KAB) regarding antimicrobial use in Ethiopia.

Introduction: Inappropriate antimicrobial use (AMU) in livestock production is an important aspect of the global burden of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). In Ethiopia, a low-income country with a large and increasing livestock population, AMU in food animals is not properly regulated. Hence, farmers are fully free to use antimicrobials to their (perceived) benefit. Therefore, understanding farmers' mindsets is important to improve antimicrobial stewardship in the livestock sector. Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted to assess livestock disease management practices and knowledge, attitude, and behavior (KAB) among livestock producers regarding AMU, residues, and resistance, as well as factors potentially explaining differences in KAB. We determined the KAB of livestock owners of three selected districts of central and western Ethiopia (n = 457), using a pretested questionnaire administered through face-to-face interviews. Logistic regression was used to evaluate the association between potential explanatory variables and the KAB scores of the respondents. Results: The results showed that 44% of the farmers used antimicrobials in the past few years, where antibiotics (21%) and trypanocides (11%) were most widely used to manage livestock diseases. Furthermore, most farmers showed poor knowledge about AMU, residues, and AMR (94%) and unfavorable attitudes (<50% correct answers) toward contributing factors for AMR (97%). On the contrary, 80% of the respondents had overall good behavior scores (≥50% correct answers) related to AMU. Multivariate analysis results showed that having good knowledge, keeping ≥2 animal species, and the occurrence of ≥4 livestock diseases on the farm in a year were strong predictors of bad behavior scores (p < 0.05). The findings of the current investigation also revealed that the incidence of livestock diseases on the farm and a higher level of formal education significantly contributed to better knowledge and desirable attitudes but bad AMU behavior. Conclusion: A low level of awareness about and undesirable attitudes toward AMU and AMR could potentially affect farmers' behavior toward judicious AMU, thus requiring awareness creation efforts on livestock disease management practices.

Approaches for disease prioritization and decision-making in animal health, 2000-2021: a structured scoping review.

This scoping review identifies and describes the methods used to prioritize diseases for resource allocation across disease control, surveillance, and research and the methods used generally in decision-making on animal health policy. Three electronic databases (Medline/PubMed, Embase, and CAB Abstracts) were searched for articles from 2000 to 2021. Searches identified 6, 395 articles after de-duplication, with an additional 64 articles added manually. A total of 6, 460 articles were imported to online document review management software (sysrev.com) for screening. Based on inclusion and exclusion criteria, 532 articles passed the first screening, and after a second round of screening, 336 articles were recommended for full review. A total of 40 articles were removed after data extraction. Another 11 articles were added, having been obtained from cross-citations of already identified articles, providing a total of 307 articles to be considered in the scoping review. The results show that the main methods used for disease prioritization were based on economic analysis, multi-criteria evaluation, risk assessment, simple ranking, spatial risk mapping, and simulation modeling. Disease prioritization was performed to aid in decision-making related to various categories: (1) disease control, prevention, or eradication strategies, (2) general organizational strategy, (3) identification of high-risk areas or populations, (4) assessment of risk of disease introduction or occurrence, (5) disease surveillance, and (6) research priority setting. Of the articles included in data extraction, 50.5% had a national focus, 12.3% were local, 11.9% were regional, 6.5% were sub-national, and 3.9% were global. In 15.2% of the articles, the geographic focus was not specified. The scoping review revealed the lack of comprehensive, integrated, and mutually compatible approaches to disease prioritization and decision support tools for animal health. We recommend that future studies should focus on creating comprehensive and harmonized frameworks describing methods for disease prioritization and decision-making tools in animal health.

Prevalence and Antimicrobial Resistance of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella, and the Prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus in Dairy Cattle and Camels under Pastoral Production System.

Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella and Staphylococcus aureus are common foodborne pathogens. We determined the prevalence of E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella in feces and milk and the prevalence of S. aureus in milk from dairy cattle and camels in the Borana pastoral community in the Southern Oromia Region of Ethiopia. Paired individual cow composite (pooled from all quarters in equal proportions) milk and fecal samples were collected from cows (n = 154) and camels (n = 158). Samples were cultured on bacterial isolation and identification media. E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella isolates were further tested for susceptibility against nine antimicrobial drugs. Different risk factors associated with hygienic milking practices were recorded and analyzed for their influence on the prevalence of these bacteria in milk and feces. The prevalence of E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella in feces were 3.9% and 8.4%, respectively, in cows, and 0.6% and 2.5%, respectively, in camels. E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella were detected in the composite milk samples of 2.6% and 3.9% of the cows, respectively, and 0% and 1.3% of the camels, respectively. S. aureus was detected in composite milk samples of 33.4% of the cows and 41.7% of the camels. All E. coli O157:H7 (n = 11) and Salmonella (n = 25) isolates from both animal species and sample types were resistant to at least one antimicrobial drug. Multidrug resistance was observed in 70% (7/10) of the E. coli O157:H7 fecal and milk isolates from cows and 33.3% (2/6) of the Salmonella fecal and milk isolates from camels. The prevalence of these bacteria in feces and milk was not affected by risk factors associated with milking practices. Given the very close contact between herders and their animals and the limited availability of water for hand washing and udder cleaning, these bacteria are most likely present in all niches in the community. Improving community awareness of the need to boil milk before consumption is a realistic public health approach to reducing the risk of these bacteria.

Status of animal health biosecurity measures of dairy farms in urban and peri-urban areas of central Ethiopia.

Ethiopian dairy farming has many constraints including disease and lack of appropriate biosecurity measures. With this into consideration, a cross-sectional survey was carried out from November 2021 to April 2022 to determine the animal health biosecurity status of dairy farms and investigate the sociodemographic characteristics of livestock keepers on dairy farm management. A face-to-face questionnaire survey using an online application was used to collect data. The interview involved a total of 380 dairy farms located in six towns in central Ethiopia. The results showed that out of the surveyed farms, 97.6% missed footbaths at their gate points, 87.4% lacked isolation areas for either sick or newly introduced cattle, and 83.4% did not check the health status or quarantine newly introduced cattle. Furthermore, written formal record-keepings on animal health was uncommon, except for a few farms (7.9%). However, nearly all of the respondents (97.9%) gave medical treatments for sick cattle, and 57.1% of them vaccinated their herds regularly during the past 12 months before the survey. Hygienic aspects of the farms showed that 77.4% of the dairy farms appeared to clean the barn on a daily basis. However, 53.2% of respondents did not utilize personal protective equipment while cleaning their farms. A quarter of the dairy farmer (25.8%) avoided mixing their cattle with other herds, and 32.9% of them have implemented isolation of sick animals. In general, the animal health biosecurity assessment of the farms showed that most of the dairy farms (79.5%) earned unacceptable biosecurity levels (score of ≤ 50%), whereas the remaining 20.5% of dairy farms had received a score of >50% ("acceptable level"). The gender of dairy farmers (χ2 value = 7.61; p = 0.006), education level (χ2 value = 12.04; p = 0.007), dairy farm ownership (χ2 value = 41.6; p < 0.001), training on dairy farm management (χ2 value = 37.1; p < 0.001), towns (χ2 value = 31.69; p < 0.001), farm size (χ2 value = 7.7; p = 0.006), and herd size (χ2 value = 28.2; p < 0.001) showed a significant statistical association with biosecurity status. Finally, the study revealed that the level of biosecurity adoption of dairy farms in central Ethiopia is mostly unsatisfactory and calls for designing and implementing intervention measures toward improved animal health in dairy farms and further public health.

Quantitative Assessment of Major Biosecurity Challenges of Poultry Production in Central Ethiopia.

The present study aims to assess the level of implementation of biosecurity practices of small-, medium- and large-scale poultry farms in central Ethiopia. A cross-sectional study design was implemented involving 226 poultry farms (153 small-, 53 medium- and 20 large-scale farms) in three selected areas of central Ethiopia, including Addis Ababa, Bishoftu and West of Shaggar. The results revealed a very low overall biosecurity score of 43.1% for central Ethiopia compared to the global average score of 64.3%. No significant difference (p > 0.05) in the overall biosecurity practices among the three study sites (36.1% for Addis Ababa, 49% for Bishoftu and 34.9% for West of Shaggar) was observed. Six of the eight external biosecurity components with an overall score of 40.7% as compared to the global average of 64.6% were highly disrupted and scored lower values. With regard to internal biosecurity disease management, cleaning and disinfection practices were found to be 52.6% as opposed to the global average of 64%. The poor biosecurity level among poultry farms of central Ethiopia clearly demonstrates the urgent need for the implementation of appropriate biosecurity practices through the active involvement of all stakeholders to combat the impact of various diseases and boost the productivity of the sector.

Antimicrobial Resistance of Escherichia coli Isolates from Livestock and the Environment in Extensive Smallholder Livestock Production Systems in Ethiopia.

The objective of this study was to characterize the distribution of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) of Escherichia coli (E. coli) isolated from livestock feces and soil in smallholder livestock systems. A cross-sectional study was carried out sampling 77 randomly selected households in four districts representing two agroecologies and production systems. E. coli was isolated and the susceptibility to 15 antimicrobials was assessed. Of 462 E. coli isolates tested, resistance to at least one antimicrobial was detected in 52% (43.7-60.8) of isolates from cattle fecal samples, 34% (95% CI, 26.2-41.8) from sheep samples, 58% (95% CI, 47.9-68.2) from goat samples and 53% (95% CI, 43.2-62.4) from soil samples. AMR patterns for E. coli from livestock and soil showed some similarities, with the highest prevalence of resistance detected against streptomycin (33%), followed by amoxycillin/clavulanate (23%) and tetracycline (8%). The odds of detecting E. coli resistance to ≥2 antimicrobials in livestock fecal samples were nearly three times (Odd Ratio-OR: 2.9; 95% CI, 1.72-5.17; p = 0.000) higher in lowland pastoral than in highland mixed crop-livestock production systems. These findings provide insights into the status of resistance in livestock and soil, and associated risk factors in low-resource settings in Ethiopia.