Standardized Training for Physicians Practicing Pediatric Cardiac Critical Care.

OBJECTIVES: In the vast majority of Children's Hospitals, the critically ill patient can be found in one of three locations: the PICU, the neonatal ICU, and the cardiac ICU. Training, certification, and maintenance of certification for neonatology and critical care medicine are over seen by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education and American Board of Pediatrics. There is no standardization of training or oversight of certification and maintenance of certification for pediatric cardiac critical care. DATA SOURCES: The curricula from the twenty 4th year pediatric cardiac critical care training programs were collated, along with the learning objectives from the Pediatric Cardiac Intensive Care Society published "Curriculum for Pediatric Cardiac Critical Care Medicine." STUDY SELECTION: This initiative is endorsed by the Pediatric Cardiac Intensive Care Society as a first step toward Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education oversight of training and American Board of Pediatrics oversight of maintenance of certification. DATA EXTRACTION: A taskforce was established of cardiac intensivists, including the directors of all 4th year pediatric cardiac critical care training programs. DATA SYNTHESIS: Using modified Delphi methodology, learning objectives, rotational requirements, and institutional requirements for providing training were developed. CONCLUSIONS: In the current era of increasing specialized care in pediatric cardiac critical care, standardized training for pediatric cardiac critical care is paramount to optimizing outcomes.

Development of consensus recommendations for the management of post-operative chylothorax in paediatric CHD.

OBJECTIVE: A standardised multi-site approach to manage paediatric post-operative chylothorax does not exist and leads to unnecessary practice variation. The Chylothorax Work Group utilised the Pediatric Critical Care Consortium infrastructure to address this gap. METHODS: Over 60 multi-disciplinary providers representing 22 centres convened virtually as a quality initiative to develop an algorithm to manage paediatric post-operative chylothorax. Agreement was objectively quantified for each recommendation in the algorithm by utilising an anonymous survey. "Consensus" was defined as ≥ 80% of responses as "agree" or "strongly agree" to a recommendation. In order to determine if the algorithm recommendations would be correctly interpreted in the clinical environment, we developed ex vivo simulations and surveyed patients who developed the algorithm and patients who did not. RESULTS: The algorithm is intended for all children (<18 years of age) within 30 days of cardiac surgery. It contains rationale for 11 central chylothorax management recommendations; diagnostic criteria and evaluation, trial of fat-modified diet, stratification by volume of daily output, timing of first-line medical therapy for "low" and "high" volume patients, and timing and duration of fat-modified diet. All recommendations achieved "consensus" (agreement >80%) by the workgroup (range 81-100%). Ex vivo simulations demonstrated good understanding by developers (range 94-100%) and non-developers (73%-100%). CONCLUSIONS: The quality improvement effort represents the first multi-site algorithm for the management of paediatric post-operative chylothorax. The algorithm includes transparent and objective measures of agreement and understanding. Agreement to the algorithm recommendations was >80%, and overall understanding was 94%.

Safety, Efficacy, and Timeliness of Intravenous Potassium Chloride Replacement Protocols in a Pediatric Cardiothoracic Intensive Care Unit.

OBJECTIVE: Hypokalemia in children following cardiac surgery occurs frequently, placing them at risk of life-threatening arrhythmias. However, renal insufficiency after cardiopulmonary bypass warrants careful administration of potassium (K+). Two different nurse-driven protocols (high dose and tiered dosing) were implemented to identify an optimal K+ replacement regimen, compared to an historical low-dose protocol. Our objective was to evaluate the safety, efficacy, and timeliness of these protocols. DESIGN: A retrospective cohort review of pediatric patients placed on intravenous K+ replacement protocols over 1 year was used to determine efficacy and safety of the protocols. A prospective single-blinded review of K+ repletion was used to determine timeliness. PATIENTS: Pediatric patients with congenital or acquired cardiac disease. SETTING: Twenty-four-bed cardiothoracic intensive care unit in a tertiary children's hospital. INTERVENTIONS: Efficacy was defined as fewer supplemental potassium chloride (KCl) doses, as well as a higher protocol to total doses ratio per patient. Safety was defined as a lower percentage of serum K+ levels ≥4.8 mEq/L after a dose of KCl. Between-group differences were assessed by nonparametric univariate analysis. RESULTS: There were 138 patients with a median age of 3.0 (interquartile range: 0.23-10.0) months. The incidence of K+ levels ≥4.8 mEq/L after a protocol dose was higher in the high-dose protocol versus the tiered-dosing protocol but not different between the low-dose and tiered-dosing protocols (high dose = 2.2% vs tiered dosing = 0.5%, P = .05). The ratio of protocol doses to total doses per patient was lower in the low-dose protocol compared to the tiered-dosing protocol (P < .05). Protocol doses were administered 45 minutes faster (P < .001). CONCLUSION: The tiered-dosed, nurse-driven K+ replacement protocol was associated with decreased supplemental K+ doses without increased risk of hyperkalemia, administering doses faster than individually ordered doses; the protocol was effective, safe, and timely in the treatment of hypokalemia in pediatric patients after cardiac surgery.

Pediatric Cardiac Intensive Care Distribution, Service Delivery, and Staffing in the United States in 2018.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the distribution, service delivery, and staffing of pediatric cardiac intensive care in the United States. DESIGN: Based on a 2016 national PICU survey, and verified through online searching and clinician networking, medical centers were identified with a separate cardiac ICU or mixed ICU. These centers were sent a structured web-based survey up to four times, with follow-up by mail and phone for nonresponders. SETTING: Cardiac ICUs were defined as specialized units, specifically for the treatment of children with life-threatening primary cardiac conditions. Mixed ICUs were defined as separate units, specifically for the treatment of children with life-threatening conditions, including primary cardiac disease. PARTICIPANTS: Cardiac ICU or mixed ICU physician medical directors or designees. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: One-hundred twenty ICUs were identified: 61 (51%) were mixed ICUs and 59 (49%) were cardiac ICUs. Seventy five percent of institutions at least sometimes used a neonatal ICU prior to surgery. The most common temporary cardiac support beyond extracorporeal membrane oxygenation was a centrifugal pump such as Centrimag. Durable cardiac support devices were far more common in separate cardiac ICUs (84% vs 20%; p < 0.0001). Significantly less availability of electrophysiology, heart failure, and cardiac anesthesia consultation was available in mixed ICUs (p = 0.0003, p < 0.0001, p = 0.042 respectively). ICU attending physicians were in-house day and night 98% of the time in mixed ICUs and 87% of the time in cardiac ICUs. Nurse practitioners were consistent front-line providers in the ICUs caring for children with primary cardiac disease staffing 88% of cardiac ICUs and 56% of mixed ICUs. Mixed ICUs were more commonly staffed with pediatric residents, and critical care fellows were found in more cardiac ICUs (83% vs 77%; p < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Mixed ICUs and cardiac ICUs have statistically different staffing models and available services. More evaluation is needed to understand how this may impact patient outcomes and training programs of physicians and nurses.

Implementation of a Risk-Stratified Opioid and Benzodiazepine Weaning Protocol in a Pediatric Cardiac ICU.

OBJECTIVES: Opioids and benzodiazepines are commonly used to provide analgesia and sedation for critically ill children with cardiac disease. These medications have been associated with adverse effects including delirium, dependence, withdrawal, bowel dysfunction, and potential neurodevelopmental abnormalities. Our objective was to implement a risk-stratified opioid and benzodiazepine weaning protocol to reduce the exposure to opioids and benzodiazepines in pediatric patients with cardiac disease. DESIGN: A prospective pre- and postinterventional study. PATIENTS: Critically ill patients less than or equal to 21 years old with acquired or congenital cardiac disease exposed to greater than or equal to 7 days of scheduled opioids ± scheduled benzodiazepines between January 2013 and February 2015. SETTING: A 24-bed pediatric cardiac ICU and 21-bed cardiovascular acute ward of an urban stand-alone children's hospital. INTERVENTION: We implemented an evidence-based opioid and benzodiazepine weaning protocol using educational and quality improvement methodology. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: One-hundred nineteen critically ill children met the inclusion criteria (64 post intervention, 55 pre intervention). Demographics and risk factors did not differ between groups. Patients in the postintervention period had shorter duration of opioids (19.0 vs 30.0 d; p < 0.01) and duration of benzodiazepines (5.3 vs 22.7 d; p < 0.01). Despite the shorter duration of wean, there was a decrease in withdrawal occurrence (% Withdrawal Assessment Tool score ≥ 4, 4.9% vs 14.1%; p < 0.01). There was an 8-day reduction in hospital length of stay (34 vs 42 d; p < 0.01). There was a decrease in clonidine use (14% vs 32%; p = 0.02) and no change in dexmedetomidine exposure (59% vs 75%; p = 0.08) in the postintervention period. CONCLUSIONS: We implemented a risk-stratified opioid and benzodiazepine weaning protocol for critically ill cardiac children that resulted in reduction in opioid and benzodiazepine duration and dose exposure, a decrease in symptoms of withdrawal, and a reduction in hospital length of stay.

Pediatric Surgical Pulmonary Valve Replacement Outcomes After Implementation of a Clinical Pathway.

BACKGROUND: Standardization of perioperative care can reduce resource utilization while improving patient outcomes. We sought to describe our outcomes after the implementation of a perioperative clinical pathway for pediatric patients undergoing elective surgical pulmonary valve replacement and compare these results to previously published national benchmarks. METHODS: A retrospective single-center descriptive study was conducted of all pediatric patients who underwent surgical pulmonary valve replacement from 2017 through 2020, after the implementation of a clinical pathway. Outcomes included hospital length of stay and 30-day reintervention, readmission, and mortality. RESULTS: Thirty-three patients (55% female, median age 11 [7, 13] years, 32 [23, 44] kg) were included in the study. Most common diagnosis and indication for surgery was Tetralogy of Fallot (61%) with pulmonary valve insufficiency (88%). All patients had prior cardiac surgery. Median hospital length of stay was 2 [2, 2] days, and longest length of stay was three days. There were no 30-day readmissions, reinterventions, or mortalities. Median follow-up time was 19 [9, 31] months. CONCLUSIONS: Formalization of a perioperative surgical pulmonary valve replacement clinical pathway can safely promote short hospital length of stay without any short-term readmissions or reinterventions, especially when compared with previously published benchmarks. Such formalization enables the dissemination of best practices to other institutions to reduce hospital length of stay and limit costs.

Lower-Dose, Intravenous Chlorothiazide Is an Effective Adjunct Diuretic to Furosemide Following Pediatric Cardiac Surgery.

OBJECTIVES: Postoperative fluid overload is ubiquitous in neonates and infants following operative intervention for congenital heart defects; ineffective diuresis is associated with poor outcomes. Diuresis with furosemide is widely used, yet there is often resistance at higher doses. In theory, furosemide resistance may be overcome with chlorothiazide; however, its efficacy is unclear, especially in lower doses and in this population. We hypothesized the addition of lower-dose, intravenous chlorothiazide following surgery in patients on high-dose furosemide would induce meaningful diuresis with minimal side effects. METHODS: This was a retrospective, cohort study. Postoperative infants younger than 6 months, receiving high-dose furosemide, and given lower-dose chlorothiazide (1-2 mg/kg every 6-12 hours) were identified. Diuretic doses, urine output, fluid balance, vasoactive-inotropic scores, total fluid intake, and electrolyte levels were recorded. RESULTS: There were 73 patients included. The addition of lower-dose chlorothiazide was associated with a significant increase in urine output (3.8 ± 0.18 vs 5.6 ± 0.27 mL/kg/hr, p < 0.001), more negative fluid balance (16.1 ± 4.2 vs -25.0 ± 6.3 mL/kg/day, p < 0.001), and marginal changes in electrolytes. Multivariate analysis was performed, demonstrating that increased urine output and more negative fluid balance were independently associated with addition of chlorothiazide. Subgroup analysis of 21 patients without a change in furosemide dose demonstrated the addition of chlorothiazide significantly increased urine output (p = 0.03) and reduced fluid balance (p < 0.01), further validating the adjunct effects of chlorothiazide. CONCLUSION: Lower-dose, intravenous chlorothiazide is an effective adjunct treatment in postoperative neonates and infants younger than 6 months following cardiothoracic surgery.

Analysis of a Pediatric Home Mechanical Ventilator Population.

BACKGROUND: The population of children requiring home mechanical ventilation has evolved over the years and has grown to include a variety of diagnoses and needs that have led to changes in the care of this unique population. The purpose of this study was to provide a descriptive analysis of pediatric patients requiring home mechanical ventilation after hospitalization and how the evolution of this technology has impacted their care. METHODS: A retrospective, observational, longitudinal analysis of 164 children enrolled in a university-affiliated home mechanical ventilation program over 26 years was performed. Data included each child's primary diagnosis, date of tracheostomy placement, duration of mechanical ventilation during hospitalization that consisted of home mechanical ventilator initiation, total length of pediatric ICU stay, ventilator settings at time of discharge from pediatric ICU, and disposition (home, facility, or died). Univariate, bivariate, and regression analysis was used as appropriate. RESULTS: The most common diagnosis requiring the use of home mechanical ventilation was neuromuscular disease (53%), followed by chronic pulmonary disease (29%). The median length of stay in the pediatric ICU decreased significantly after the implementation of a ventilator ward (70 d [30-142] vs 36 d [18-67], P = .02). The distribution of subjects upon discharge was home (71%), skilled nursing facility (24%), and died (4%), with an increase in the proportion of subjects discharged on PEEP and those going to nursing facilities over time (P = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: The evolution of home mechanical ventilation has allowed earlier transition out of the pediatric ICU and with increasing disposition to skilled nursing facilities over time. There has also been a change in ventilator management, including increased use of PEEP upon discharge, possibly driven by changes in ventilators and in-patient practice patterns.

Implementation of a risk-stratified opioid weaning protocol in a pediatric intensive care unit.

PURPOSE: Opioids are important in the care of critically ill children. However, their use is associated with complications including delirium, dependence, withdrawal, and bowel dysfunction. Our aim was to implement a risk-stratified opioid weaning protocol to reduce the duration of opioids without increasing the incidence of withdrawal. METHODS: A pre- and post-interventional prospective study was undertaken in a large children's hospital pediatric ICU where we implemented a risk-stratified opioid weaning protocol. Patients were included if exposed to ≥7days of scheduled opioids. The primary outcome was duration of opioids and secondary outcome was hospital LOS. RESULTS: One hundred seven critically ill children met the inclusion criteria (68 pre-, 39 post-intervention). Demographics, risk factors, and confounders did not differ between groups. Patients in the post-intervention group had shorter duration of opioids (17 vs. 22.5days, p=0.01) and opioid wean (12 vs. 18days, p=0.01). Despite the shorter duration of opioid wean, there was no increase in withdrawal incidence. There was no difference in the LOS (29 vs. 33days, p=0.06). CONCLUSIONS: We implemented a risk-stratified opioid weaning protocol for critically ill children that resulted in reduction in opioid exposure without an increase in withdrawal. There was no difference in the LOS.

B-type natriuretic peptide levels predict outcomes in infants undergoing cardiac surgery in a lesion-dependent fashion.

OBJECTIVE: B-type natriuretic peptide is used in the diagnosis, risk stratification, and management of adult patients with cardiac disease. However, its use in infants with congenital heart disease has been limited, particularly in the perioperative period. Our objective was to determine the alterations in perioperative B-type natriuretic peptide levels and their predictive value on postoperative outcomes, in infants undergoing congenital heart surgery. METHODS: We prospectively enrolled 115 patients: 24 with univentricular heart disease undergoing a modified Norwood procedure, 11 with d-transposition of the great arteries, 55 with hemodynamically important left-to-right shunt, and 25 with tetralogy of Fallot undergoing primary repair. Clinical data and B-type natriuretic peptide samples were collected before and 2, 12, and 24 hours after cardiopulmonary bypass. Univariate analysis and multivariate linear regression analysis were performed. RESULTS: The perioperative B-type natriuretic peptide levels were lesion specific. Patients with d-transposition of the great arteries and univentricular heart disease had high preoperative B-type natriuretic peptide levels that decreased postoperatively, and those with hemodynamically important left-to-right shunts and tetralogy of Fallot had lower preoperative levels that increased during the first 12 hours postoperatively. The patients with univentricular heart disease with an adverse outcome had a significantly greater 24-hour B-type natriuretic peptide level than those without (P < .05). Those with hemodynamically important left to right shunts and an adverse outcome had a greater 12-hour B-type natriuretic peptide level than those without (P < .05). A 12-hour postoperative/preoperative ratio greater than 45 was 100% sensitive and 82% specific for an adverse outcome in the patients with tetralogy of Fallot. CONCLUSIONS: The perioperative changes in B-type natriuretic peptide levels and their ability to predict outcomes are lesion-specific. Characterization of these changes might be useful in caring for infants after congenital heart surgery.