Energy level and band alignment for GaAs-alkylthiol monolayer-Hg junctions from electrical transport and photoemission experiments.

A series of p- and n-GaAs-S-C(n)H(2n+1) || Hg junctions are prepared, and the electronic transport through them is measured. From current-voltage measurements, we find that, for n-GaAs, transport occurs by both thermionic emission and tunneling, with the former dominating at low forward bias and the latter dominating at higher forward bias. For p-GaAs, tunneling dominates at all bias voltages. By combining the analysis of the transport data with results from direct and inverse photoemission spectroscopy, we deduce an energy band diagram of the system, including the tunnel barrier and, with this barrier and within the Simmons tunneling model, extract an effective mass value of 1.5-1.6m(e) for the electronic carriers that cross the junctions. We find that transport is well-described by lowest unoccupied and highest occupied states at 1.3-1.4 eV above and 2.0-2.2 eV below the Fermi level. At the same time, the photoemission data indicate that there are continua of states from the conduction band minimum and the valence band maximum, the density of which varies with energy. On the basis of our results, it appears likely that, for both types of junctions, electrons are the main carrier type, although holes may contribute significantly to the transport in the p-GaAs system.

Radiation damage to alkyl chain monolayers on semiconductor substrates investigated by electron spectroscopy.

Monolayers of alkyl chains, attached through direct Si-C bonds to Si(111), via phosphonates to GaAs(100) surfaces, or deposited as alkyl-silane monolayers on SiO2, are investigated by ultraviolet and inverse photoemission spectroscopy and X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Exposure to ultraviolet radiation from a He discharge lamp, or to a beam of energetic electrons, leads to significant damage, presumably associated with radiation- or electron-induced H-abstraction leading to carbon-carbon double-bond formation in the alkyl monolayer. The damage results in an overall distortion of the valence spectrum, in the appearance of (occupied) states above the highest occupied molecular orbital of the alkyl molecule, and in a characteristic (unoccupied state) pi resonance at the edge of the carbon absorption peak. These distortions present a serious challenge for the interpretation of the electronic structure of the monolayer system. We show that extrapolation to zero damage at short exposure times eliminates extrinsic features and allows a meaningful extraction of the density of state of the pristine monolayer from spectroscopy measurements.

Effect of molecular binding to a semiconductor on metal/molecule/semiconductor junction behavior.

Diodes made by (indirectly) evaporating Au on a monolayer of molecules that are adsorbed chemically onto GaAs, via either disulfide or dicarboxylate groups, show roughly linear but opposite dependence of their effective barrier height on the dipole moment of the molecules. We explain this by Au-molecule (electrical) interactions not only with the exposed end groups of the molecule but also with its binding groups. We arrive at this conclusion by characterizing the interface by in situ UPS-XPS, ex situ XPS, TOF-SIMS, and Kelvin probe measurements, by scanning microscopy of the surfaces, and by current-voltage measurements of the devices. While there is a very limited interaction of Au with the dicarboxylic binding groups, there is a much stronger interaction with the disulfide groups. We suggest that these very different interactions lead to different (growth) morphologies of the evaporated gold layer, resulting in opposite effects of the molecular dipole on the junction barrier height.

Synthesis, ionisation potentials and electron affinities of hexaazatrinaphthylene derivatives.

Several hexaazatrinaphthylene derivatives and a tris(thieno)hexaazatriphenylene derivative have been synthesised by reaction of the appropriate diamines with hexaketocyclohexane. The crystal structure of 2,3,8,9,14,15-hexachloro-5,6,11,12,17,18-hexaazatrinaphthylene has been determined by X-ray diffraction; this reveals a molecular structure in good agreement with that predicted by density functional theory (DFT) calculations and pi-stacking with an average spacing between adjacent molecular planes of 3.18 A. Solid-state ionisation potentials have been measured by using UV photoelectron spectroscopy and fall in the range of 5.99 to 7.76 eV, whereas solid-state electron affinities, measured using inverse photoelectron spectroscopy, vary in the range -2.65 to -4.59 eV. The most easily reduced example is a tris(thieno)hexaazatriphenylene substituted with bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl groups; DFT calculations suggest that the highly exothermic electron affinity is due both to the replacement of the outermost phenylene rings of hexaazatrinaphthylene with thieno groups and to the presence of electron-withdrawing bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl groups. The rather exothermic electron affinities, the potential for adopting pi-stacked structures and the low intramolecular reorganisation energies obtained by DFT calculations suggest that some of these molecules may be useful electron-transport materials.

How do electronic carriers cross Si-bound alkyl monolayers?

Electron transport through Si-C bound alkyl chains, sandwiched between and Hg, is characterized by two distinct types of barriers, each dominating in a different voltage range. At low voltage, the current depends strongly on temperature but not on molecular length, suggesting transport by thermionic emission over a barrier in the Si. At higher voltage, the current decreases exponentially with molecular length, suggesting transport limited by tunneling through the molecules. The tunnel barrier is estimated, from transport and photoemission data, to be approximately 1.5 eV with a 0.25m(e) effective mass.

Electron affinities of 1,1-diaryl-2,3,4,5-tetraphenylsiloles: direct measurements and comparison with experimental and theoretical estimates.

We present a comprehensive experimental and theoretical characterization of the electronic structure of four 1,1-diaryl-2,3,4,5-tetraphenylsiloles (aryl = phenyl, 2-(9,9-dimethylfluorenyl), 2-thienyl, pentafluorophenyl). Solid-state electron affinities and ionization potentials of these siloles were measured using inverse-photoelectron spectroscopy (IPES) and photoelectron spectroscopy (PES), respectively; the density of electronic states obtained from calculations performed at the density functional theory (DFT) level corresponds very well to the PES and IPES data. The direct IPES measurements of electron affinity were then used to assess alternative estimates based on electrochemical and/or optical data. We also used DFT to calculate the reorganization energies for the electron-transfer reactions between these siloles and their radical anions. Additionally, optical data and ionization potential and electron affinity data were utilized to estimate the binding energies of excitons in these siloles.

High charge-carrier mobility in an amorphous hexaazatrinaphthylene derivative.

An isomeric mixture of a tris(pentafluorobenzyl ester) derivative of hexaazatrinaphthylene forms stable amorphous films with an effective charge-carrier mobility of 0.02 cm2/Vs, while the pure 2,8,15-isomer exhibits widely differing morphologies and carrier mobilities (0.001-0.07 cm2/Vs), depending critically on the processing conditions.

Nanochemistry at the atomic scale revealed in hydrogen-induced semiconductor surface metallization.

Passivation of semiconductor surfaces against chemical attack can be achieved by terminating the surface-dangling bonds with a monovalent atom such as hydrogen. Such passivation invariably leads to the removal of all surface states in the bandgap, and thus to the termination of non-metallic surfaces. Here we report the first observation of semiconductor surface metallization induced by atomic hydrogen. This result, established by using photo-electron and photo-absorption spectroscopies and scanning tunnelling techniques, is achieved on a Si-terminated cubic silicon carbide (SiC) surface. It results from competition between hydrogen termination of surface-dangling bonds and hydrogen-generated steric hindrance below the surface. Understanding the ingredient for hydrogen-stabilized metallization directly impacts the ability to eliminate electronic defects at semiconductor interfaces critical for microelectronics, provides a means to develop electrical contacts on high-bandgap chemically passive materials, particularly for interfacing with biological systems, and gives control of surfaces for lubrication, for example of nanomechanical devices.