Regulatory T-cell and neutrophil extracellular trap interaction contributes to carcinogenesis in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Regulatory T-cells (Tregs) impair cancer immunosurveillance by creating an immunosuppressive environment that fosters tumor cell survival. Our previous findings demonstrated that neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), which are involved both in innate and adaptive immunity, are abundant in livers affected by non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). However, how NETs interact with Tregs in the development of NASH-associated hepatocellular carcinoma (NASH-HCC) is not known. METHODS: A choline-deficient, high-fat diet+diethylnitrosamine mouse model and the stelic animal model were utilized for NASH-HCC and a western diet mouse model was used for NASH development. Treg depletion was achieved using FoxP3-DTR mice. RNA sequencing was used to explore the mechanism by which NETs could regulate Treg differentiation. Bioenergetic analyses of naïve CD4+ T-cells were assessed by Seahorse. RESULTS: Although the absolute number of CD4+ T-cells is lower in NASH livers, the Treg subpopulation is selectively increased. Depleting Tregs dramatically inhibits HCC initiation and progression in NASH. There is a positive correlation between increased NET and hepatic Treg levels. RNA sequencing data reveals that NETs impact gene expression profiles in naïve CD4+ T-cells, with the most differentially expressed genes being those involved in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation. By facilitating mitochondrial respiration, NETs can promote Treg differentiation. Metabolic reprogramming of naïve CD4+ T-cells by NETs requires toll-like receptor 4. Blockade of NETs in vivo using Pad4-/- mice or DNase I treatment reduces the activity of Tregs. CONCLUSIONS: Tregs can suppress immunosurveillance in the premalignant stages of NASH. NETs facilitate the crosstalk between innate and adaptive immunity in NASH by promoting Treg activity through metabolic reprogramming. Therapies targeting NETs and Treg interactions could offer a potential strategy for preventing HCC in patients with NASH. LAY SUMMARY: Regulatory T-cells (Tregs) can promote tumor development by suppressing cancer immunosurveillance, but their role in carcinogenesis during non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) progression is unknown. Herein, we discovered that selectively increased intrahepatic Tregs can promote an immunosuppressive environment in NASH livers. Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) link innate and adaptive immunity by promoting Treg differentiation via metabolic reprogramming of naïve CD4+ T-cells. This mechanism could be targeted to prevent liver cancer in patients with NASH.

Moesin, an Ezrin/Radixin/Moesin Family Member, Regulates Hepatic Fibrosis.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Moesin, an ezrin/radixin/moesin family member, is involved in the regulation of cell adhesion, polarity, and migration by cross-linking between the actin cytoskeleton and plasma membrane. The primary effector cell in hepatic fibrosis is the hepatic stellate cell (HSC), which undergoes activation during liver injury leading to increased extracellular matrix production. APPROACH AND RESULTS: Here, we have hypothesized that moesin plays a critical role in linking the HSC cytoskeleton to the fibrogenic cascade during HSC activation. Moesin phosphorylation was up-regulated during HSC activation and fibrogenesis. Using moesin wild-type (WT) and mutant constructs (phosphomimicking T558D and nonphosphorylatable T558A), we found that cellular motility and contraction were increased in moesin WT-infected and T558D-infected cells, paralleled by an increase in smooth muscle α-actin and collagen 1 expression. In contrast, overexpression of nonphosphorylatable moesin and moesin knockout (KO) decreased cellular motility and contraction. Most importantly, moesin KO led to abrogation of liver fibrosis. The mechanism of moesin's effect was a reduction in myocardin-related transcription factor-A and serum-response factor (SRF)-mediated changes in the actin cytoskeleton, which in turn modulated the expression of matrix genes. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, our findings suggest that the linkage between cytoskeletal dynamics and the correlated MRTF/SRF signaling pathway has a pivotal role in HSC activation and fibrogenesis.

Cutting Edge: Targeting Thrombocytes to Rewire Anticancer Immunity in the Tumor Microenvironment and Potentiate Efficacy of PD-1 Blockade.

Aside from their roles in hemostasis and thrombosis, thrombocytes or platelets also promote tumor growth via immune suppression. However, the extent to which platelet activation shapes the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) and whether platelet inhibition can be leveraged to improve checkpoint blockade are unknown. We show in this study that platelet function in mice mediates suppression of CD8+ T cell function within the TME but not in the draining lymph nodes. Tempering platelet activation genetically reduced TGF-ß signaling in both immune and nonimmune cells in the TME, enhanced T cell frequency and function, and decreased CD11b+ myeloid cell infiltration in the tumor. Targeting platelet function pharmacologically in tumor-bearing mice with aspirin and clopidogrel in combination with PD-1 blockade improved tumor control. These results suggest that platelet function represents a continuous, supplemental mechanism of immune evasion co-opted by tumors to evade antitumor immunity and offers an attractive target for combination with immunotherapy.

Interplay of host-pathogen microvesicles and their role in infectious disease.

The release of extracellular vesicles, whether MVs (microvesicles) or exosomes, from host cells or intracellular pathogens is likely to play a significant role in the infection process. Host MVs may fuse with pathogen surfaces to deliver host complement regulatory proteins. They may also deliver cytokines that enhance invasion. Decoy functions are also possible. Whereas host MVs may direct pathogens away from their target cells, pathogen MVs may in turn redirect complement membrane-attack complexes away from their target pathogen. An understanding of the mechanisms of this interplay, bringing about both immune evasion and enhanced invasion, will help to direct future research with a view to rendering pathogens more susceptible to immune attack or in improving drug efficacy. It should also be possible to use MVs or exosomes isolated directly from the pathogens, or from the cells infected with pathogens, to provide alternative vaccination strategies.

Human plasma membrane-derived vesicles halt proliferation and induce differentiation of THP-1 acute monocytic leukemia cells.

Plasma membrane-derived vesicles (PMVs) are small intact vesicles released from the cell surface that play a role in intercellular communication. We have examined the role of PMVs in the terminal differentiation of monocytes. The myeloid-differentiating agents all-trans retinoic acid/PMA and histamine, the inflammatory mediator that inhibits promonocyte proliferation, induced an intracellular Ca(2+)-mediated PMV (as opposed to exosome) release from THP-1 promonocytes. These PMVs cause THP-1 cells to enter G(0)-G(1) cell cycle arrest and induce terminal monocyte-to-macrophage differentiation. Use of the TGF-ß receptor antagonist SB-431542 and anti-TGF-ß1 Ab showed that this was due to TGF-ß1 carried on PMVs. Although TGF-ß1 levels have been shown to increase in cell culture supernatants during macrophage differentiation and dendritic cell maturation, the presence of TGF-ß1 in PMVs is yet to be reported. In this study, to our knowledge we show for the first time that TGF-ß1 is carried on the surface of PMVs, and we confirm the presence within PMVs of certain leaderless proteins, with reported roles in myeloid cell differentiation. Our in vitro findings support a model in which TGF-ß1-bearing PMVs, released from promonocytic leukemia cells (THP-1) or primary peripheral blood monocytes on exposure to sublytic complement or after treatment with a differentiation therapy agent, such as all-trans retinoic acid, significantly reduce proliferation of THP-1 cells. Such PMVs also induce the terminal differentiation of primary peripheral blood monocytes as well as THP-1 monocytes.

Red cell PMVs, plasma membrane-derived vesicles calling out for standards.

Plasma membrane-derived vesicles (PMVs) or microparticles are vesicles (0.1-1mum in diameter) released from the plasma membrane of all blood cell types under a variety of biochemical and pathological conditions. PMVs contain cytoskeletal elements and some surface markers from the parent cell but lack a nucleus and are unable to synthesise macromolecules. They are also defined on the basis that in most cases PMVs express varying amounts of the cytosolic leaflet lipid phosphatidylserine, which is externalised during activation on their surface. This marks the PMV as a biologically distinct entity from that of its parent cell, despite containing surface markers from the original cell, and also explains its role in events such as phagocytosis and thrombosis. There is currently a large amount of variation between investigators with regard to the pre-analytical steps employed in isolating red cell PMVs or RPMVs (which are slightly smaller than most PMVs), with key differences being centrifugation and sample storage conditions, which often leads to result variability. Unfortunately, standardization of preparation and detection methods has not yet been achieved. This review highlights and critically discusses the variables contributing to differences in results obtained by investigators, bringing to light numerous studies of which RPMVs have been analysed but have not yet been the subject of a review.

Involvement of lectin pathway activation in the complement killing of Giardia intestinalis.

Giardia intestinalis (syn. G. lamblia, G. duodenalis) is a flagellated unicellular eukaryotic microorganism that commonly causes diarrheal disease throughout the world. In humans, the clinical effects of Giardia infection range from the asymptomatic carrier state to a severe malabsorption syndrome possibly due to different virulence of the Giardia strain, the number of cysts ingested, the age of the host, and the state of the host immune system at the time of infection. The question about how G. intestinalis is controlled by the organism remains unanswered. Here, we investigated the role of the complement system and in particular, the lectin pathway during Giardia infections. We present the first evidence that G. intestinalis activate the complement lectin pathway and in doing so participate in eradication of the parasite. We detected rapid binding of mannan-binding lectin, H-ficolin and L-ficolin to the surface of G. intestinalis trophozoites and normal human serum depleted of these molecules failed to kill the parasites. Our finding provides insight into the role of lectin pathway in the control of G. intestinalis and about the nature of surface components of parasite.

Human plasma membrane-derived vesicles inhibit the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells--possible role in SLE.

Plasma membrane-derived vesicles (PMVs) also known as microparticles, are small membrane-bound vesicles released from the cell membrane via blebbing and shedding. PMVs have been linked with various physiological functions as well as pathological conditions such as inflammation, autoimmune disease and cardiovascular disease. PMVs are characterised by the expression of phosphatidylserine (PS) on the plasma membrane. PS, also expressed on apoptotic cells (ACs) enables macrophages to phagocytose ACs. As it is widely known that PMV production is increased during apoptosis, we were able to show that PMVs could compete dose dependently with ACs for the PS receptor on macrophages, so reducing phagocytosis of ACs. In a clinical setting this may result in secondary necrosis and further pathological conditions. In SLE in which there are raised PMV levels, there is an anti-phospholipid-mediated increase in PMV release, which can be abrogated by depletion of IgG. Our work provides an insight into how PMVs may play a role in the aetiology of autoimmune disease, in particular SLE.

RNA binding protein PCBP1 is an intracellular immune checkpoint for shaping T cell responses in cancer immunity.

Distinct lineages of T cells can act in response to various environmental cues to either drive or restrict immune-mediated pathology. Here, we identify the RNA binding protein, poly(C)-binding protein 1 (PCBP1) as an intracellular immune checkpoint that is up-regulated in activated T cells to prevent conversion of effector T (Teff) cells into regulatory T (Treg) cells, by restricting the expression of Teff cell-intrinsic Treg commitment programs. This was critical for stabilizing Teff cell functions and subverting immune-suppressive signals. T cell-specific deletion of Pcbp1 favored Treg cell differentiation, enlisted multiple inhibitory immune checkpoint molecules including PD-1, TIGIT, and VISTA on tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, and blunted antitumor immunity. Our results demonstrate a critical role for PCBP1 as an intracellular immune checkpoint for maintaining Teff cell functions in cancer immunity.

B lymphocytes confer immune tolerance via cell surface GARP-TGF-ß complex.

GARP, a cell surface docking receptor for binding and activating latent TGF-ß, is highly expressed by platelets and activated Tregs. While GARP is implicated in immune invasion in cancer, the roles of the GARP-TGF-ß axis in systemic autoimmune diseases are unknown. Although B cells do not express GARP at baseline, we found that the GARP-TGF-ß complex is induced on activated human and mouse B cells by ligands for multiple TLRs, including TLR4, TLR7, and TLR9. GARP overexpression on B cells inhibited their proliferation, induced IgA class-switching, and dampened T cell-independent antibody production. In contrast, B cell-specific deletion of GARP-encoding gene Lrrc32 in mice led to development of systemic autoimmune diseases spontaneously as well as worsening of pristane-induced lupus-like disease. Canonical TGF-ß signaling more readily upregulates GARP in Peyer patch B cells than in splenic B cells. Furthermore, we demonstrated that B cells are required for the induction of oral tolerance of T cell-dependent antigens via GARP. Our studies reveal for the first time to our knowledge that cell surface GARP-TGF-ß is an important checkpoint for regulating B cell peripheral tolerance, highlighting a mechanism of autoimmune disease pathogenesis.

Membrane-organizing protein moesin controls Treg differentiation and antitumor immunity via TGF-ß signaling.

Moesin is a member of the ezrin-radixin-moesin (ERM) family of proteins that are important for organizing membrane domains and receptor signaling and regulating the migration of effector T cells. Whether moesin plays any role during the generation of TGF-ß-induced Tregs (iTregs) is unknown. Here, we have discovered that moesin is translationally regulated by TGF-ß and is also required for optimal TGF-ß signaling that promotes efficient development of iTregs. Loss of moesin impaired the development and function of both peripherally derived iTregs and in vitro-induced Tregs. Mechanistically, we identified an interaction between moesin and TGF-ß receptor II (TßRII) that allows moesin to control the surface abundance and stability of TßRI and TßRII. We also found that moesin is required for iTreg conversion in the tumor microenvironment, and the deletion of moesin from recipient mice supported the rapid expansion of adoptively transferred CD8+ T cells against melanoma. Our study establishes moesin as an important regulator of the surface abundance and stability of TßRII and identifies moesin's role in facilitating the efficient generation of iTregs. It also provides an advancement to our understanding about the role of the ERM proteins in regulating signal transduction pathways and suggests that modulation of moesin is a potential therapeutic target for Treg-related immune disorders.

Clients and Oncogenic Roles of Molecular Chaperone gp96/grp94.

As an endoplasmic reticulum heat shock protein (HSP) 90 paralogue, glycoprotein (gp) 96 possesses immunological properties by chaperoning antigenic peptides for activation of T cells. Genetic studies in the last decade have unveiled that gp96 is also an essential master chaperone for multiple receptors and secreting proteins including Toll-like receptors (TLRs), integrins, the Wnt coreceptor, Low Density Lipoprotein Receptor-Related Protein 6 (LRP6), the latent TGFß docking receptor, Glycoprotein A Repetitions Predominant (GARP), Glycoprotein (GP) Ib and insulin-like growth factors (IGF). Clinically, elevated expression of gp96 in a variety of cancers correlates with the advanced stage and poor survival of cancer patients. Recent preclinical studies have also uncovered that gp96 expression is closely linked to cancer progression in multiple myeloma, hepatocellular carcinoma, breast cancer and inflammation-associated colon cancer. Thus, gp96 is an attractive therapeutic target for cancer treatment. The chaperone function of gp96 depends on its ATPase domain, which is structurally distinct from other HSP90 members, and thus favors the design of highly selective gp96-targeted inhibitors against cancer. We herein discuss the strategically important oncogenic clients of gp96 and their underlying biology. The roles of cell-intrinsic gp96 in T cell biology are also discussed, in part because it offers another opportunity of cancer therapy by manipulating levels of gp96 in T cells to enhance host immune defense.

Inhibition of microvesiculation sensitizes prostate cancer cells to chemotherapy and reduces docetaxel dose required to limit tumor growth in vivo.

Microvesicles shed from cells carry constituents of the cell cytoplasm, including, of importance in multidrug resistance to cancer chemotherapy, drugs that the tumor cell attempts to efflux. To see whether such drugs could be used at lower concentrations with the same efficacy, it was first shown that microvesiculation of prostate cancer (PCa) cells, PC3, could be inhibited pharmacologically with calpeptin (calpain inhibitor) and by siRNA (CAPNS1). In cells treated with docetaxel (DTX), this inhibition resulted in a third-fold increase in intracellular concentrations of DTX. As a result, 20-fold lower concentrations of DTX (5 nM) could be used, in the presence of calpeptin (20 µM) inducing the same degree of apoptosis after 48 h in PC3 cells, as 100 nM of DTX alone. Inhibition of microvesiculation similarly improved combination chemotherapy (DTX and methotrexate). In a mouse xenograft model of PCa, DTX (0.1 mg/kg) together with calpeptin (10 mg/kg), administered i.p., significantly reduced tumor volumes compared to DTX alone (0.1 mg/kg) and brought about the same reductions in tumor growth as 10 mg/kg of DTX alone. As well as further reducing vascularization, it also increased apoptosis and reduced proliferation of PC3 cells in tumor xenografts.

Microvesicles in health and disease.

Microvesicles (or MVs) are plasma membrane-derived vesicles released from most eukaryotic cells constitutively during early apoptosis or at higher levels after chemical or physical stress conditions. This review looks at some of the functions of MVs in terms of intercellular communication and ensuant signal transduction, including the transport of proteins (unconventional protein export) as well as of mRNA and microRNA. MVs also have roles in membrane repair, the removal of misfolded proteins, and in the control of apoptosis. We also discuss the role MVs have been shown to have in invasive growth and metastasis as well as in hypoxia in tumours and cerebral ischaemia. The association of MVs in infectious and autoimmune disease is also summarised together with their possible use as therapeutic agents.