Filling the agronomic data gap through a minimum data collection approach.

Context: Agronomic data such as applied inputs, management practices, and crop yields are needed for assessing productivity, nutrient balances, resource use efficiency, as well as other aspects of environmental and economic performance of cropping systems. In many instances, however, these data are only available at a coarse level of aggregation or simply do not exist. Objectives: Here we developed an approach that identifies sites for agronomic data collection for a given crop and country, seeking a balance between minimizing data collection efforts and proper representation of the main crop producing areas. Methods: The developed approach followed a stratified sampling method based on a spatial framework that delineates major climate zones and crop area distribution maps, which guides selection of sampling areas (SA) until half of the national harvested area is covered. We provided proof of concept about the robustness of the approach using three rich databases including data on fertilizer application rates for maize, wheat, and soybean in Argentina, soybean in the USA, and maize in Kenya, which were collected via local experts (Argentina) and field surveys (USA and Kenya). For validation purposes, fertilizer rates per crop and nutrient derived at (sub-) national level following our approach were compared against those derived using all data collected from the whole country. Results: Application of the approach in Argentina, USA, and Kenya resulted in selection of 12, 28, and 10 SAs, respectively. For each SA, three experts or 20 fields were sufficient to give a robust estimate of average fertilizer rates applied by farmers. Average rates at national level derived from our approach compared well with those derived using the whole database ( ± 10 kg N, ± 2 kg P, ± 1 kg S, and ± 5 kg K per ha) requiring less than one third of the observations. Conclusions: The developed minimum crop data collection approach can fill the agronomic data gaps in a cost-effective way for major crop systems both in large- and small-scale systems. Significance: The proposed approach is generic enough to be applied to any crop-country combination to guide collection of key agricultural data at national and subnational levels with modest investment especially for countries that do not currently collect data.

The scale dependency of spatial crop species diversity and its relation to temporal diversity.

Increasing crop species diversity can enhance agricultural sustainability, but the scale dependency of the processes that shape diversity and of the effects of diversity on agroecosystems is insufficiently understood. We used 30 m spatial resolution crop classification data for the conterminous United States to analyze spatial and temporal crop species diversity and their relationship. We found that the US average temporal (crop rotation) diversity is 2.1 effective number of species and that a crop's average temporal diversity is lowest for common crops. Spatial diversity monotonically increases with the size of the unit of observation, and it is most strongly associated with temporal diversity when measured for areas of 100 to 400 ha, which is the typical US farm size. The association between diversity in space and time weakens as data are aggregated over larger areas because of the increasing diversity among farms, but at intermediate aggregation levels (counties) it is possible to estimate temporal diversity and farm-scale spatial diversity from aggregated spatial crop diversity data if the effect of beta diversity is considered. For larger areas, the diversity among farms is usually much greater than the diversity within them, and this needs to be considered when analyzing large-area crop diversity data. US agriculture is dominated by a few major annual crops (maize, soybean, wheat) that are mostly grown on fields with a very low temporal diversity. To increase crop species diversity, currently minor crops would have to increase in area at the expense of these major crops.

Estimating lime requirements for tropical soils: Model comparison and development.

Acid tropical soils may become more productive when treated with agricultural lime, but optimal lime rates have yet to be determined in many tropical regions. In these regions, lime rates can be estimated with lime requirement models based on widely available soil data. We reviewed seven of these models and introduced a new model (LiTAS). We evaluated the models' ability to predict the amount of lime needed to reach a target change in soil chemical properties with data from four soil incubation studies covering 31 soil types. Two foundational models, one targeting acidity saturation and the other targeting base saturation, were more accurate than the five models that were derived from them, while the LiTAS model was the most accurate. The models were used to estimate lime requirements for 303 African soil samples. We found large differences in the estimated lime rates depending on the target soil chemical property of the model. Therefore, an important first step in formulating liming recommendations is to clearly identify the soil property of interest and the target value that needs to be reached. While the LiTAS model can be useful for strategic research, more information on acidity-related problems other than aluminum toxicity is needed to comprehensively assess the benefits of liming.

High-resolution global maps of yield potential with local relevance for targeted crop production improvement.

Identifying untapped opportunities for crop production improvement in current cropland is crucial to guide food availability interventions. Here we integrated an agronomically robust bottom-up approach with machine learning to generate global maps of yield potential of high resolution (ca. 1 km2 at the Equator) and accuracy for maize, wheat and rice. These maps serve as a robust reference to benchmark farmers' yields in the context of current cropping systems and water regimes and can help to identify areas with large room to increase crop yields.

Adopting yield-improving practices to meet maize demand in Sub-Saharan Africa without cropland expansion.

Maize demand in Sub-Saharan Africa is expected to increase 2.3 times during the next 30 years driven by demographic and dietary changes. Over the past two decades, the area cropped with maize has expanded by 17 million hectares in the region, with limited yield increase. Following this trend could potentially result in further maize cropland expansion and the need for imports to satisfy domestic demand. Here, we use data collected from 14,773 smallholder fields in the region to identify agronomic practices that can improve farm yield gains. We find that agronomic practices related to cultivar selection, and nutrient, pest, and crop management can double on-farm yields and provide an additional 82 million tons of maize within current cropped area. Research and development investments should be oriented towards agricultural practices with proven capacity to raise maize yields in the region.