Viral cyclins mediate separate phases of infection by integrating functions of distinct mammalian cyclins.

Gammaherpesvirus cyclins have expanded biochemical features relative to mammalian cyclins, and promote infection and pathogenesis including acute lung infection, viral persistence, and reactivation from latency. To define the essential features of the viral cyclin, we generated a panel of knock-in viruses expressing various viral or mammalian cyclins from the murine gammaherpesvirus 68 cyclin locus. Viral cyclins of both gammaherpesvirus 68 and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus supported all cyclin-dependent stages of infection, indicating functional conservation. Although mammalian cyclins could not restore lung replication, they did promote viral persistence and reactivation. Strikingly, distinct and non-overlapping mammalian cyclins complemented persistence (cyclin A, E) or reactivation from latency (cyclin D3). Based on these data, unique biochemical features of viral cyclins (e.g. enhanced kinase activation) are not essential to mediate specific processes during infection. What is essential for, and unique to, the viral cyclins is the integration of the activities of several different mammalian cyclins, which allows viral cyclins to mediate multiple, discrete stages of infection. These studies also demonstrated that closely related stages of infection, that are cyclin-dependent, are in fact genetically distinct, and thus predict that cyclin requirements may be used to tailor potential therapies for virus-associated diseases.

Human Complement C4B Allotypes and Deficiencies in Selected Cases With Autoimmune Diseases.

Human complement C4 is one of the most diverse but heritable effectors for humoral immunity. To help understand the roles of C4 in the defense and pathogenesis of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, we determined the bases of polymorphisms including the frequent genetic deficiency of C4A and/or C4B isotypes. We demonstrated the diversities of C4A and C4B proteins and their gene copy number variations (CNVs) in healthy subjects and patients with autoimmune disease, such as type 1 diabetes, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and encephalitis. We identified subjects with (a) the fastest migrating C4B allotype, B7, or (b) a deficiency of C4B protein caused by genetic mutation in addition to gene copy-number variation. Those variants and mutants were characterized, sequenced and specific techniques for detection developed. Novel findings were made in four case series. First, the amino acid sequence determinant for C4B7 was likely the R729Q variation at the anaphylatoxin-like region. Second, in healthy White subject MS630, a C-nucleotide deletion at codon-755 led to frameshift mutations in his single C4B gene, which was a private mutation. Third, in European family E94 with multiplex lupus-related mortality and low serum C4 levels, the culprit was a recurrent haplotype with HLA-A30, B18 and DR7 that segregated with two defective C4B genes and identical mutations at the donor splice site of intron-28. Fourth, in East-Asian subject E133P with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis, the C4B gene had a mutation that changed tryptophan-660 to a stop-codon (W660x), which was present in a haplotype with HLA-DRB1*04:06 and B*15:27. The W660x mutation is recurrent among East-Asians with a frequency of 1.5% but not detectable among patients with SLE. A meticulous annotation of C4 sequences revealed clusters of variations proximal to sites for protein processing, activation and inactivation, and binding of interacting molecules.

Low molecular weight dextrans stabilize nonviral vectors during lyophilization at low osmolalities: concentrating suspensions by rehydration to reduced volumes.

Stabilization of nonviral vectors during freezing and drying requires formulation with protective excipients such that transfection rates and physical characteristics are maintained upon reconstitution. While many studies have demonstrated the ability of disaccharides (e.g., sucrose) to effectively protect nonviral vectors during lyophilization, the sucrose/DNA weight ratios required to achieve stability result in formulations that are not osmotically compatible with the subcutaneous (SC) or intramuscular (IM) injection of a typical dose of plasmid DNA. In an effort to reduce the formulation osmolality, dextrans possessing a range of molecular weights were investigated for their ability to serve as protectants. Dextran 3000 proved to be the most effective of the dextrans tested, and offered similar protection to sucrose on a weight basis. However, the advantage of employing this excipient is that the resulting osmolality is reduced by approximately 40% as compared to an equivalent weight of sucrose. Moreover, the use of dextran allows lyophilized vector preparations to be rehydrated to reduced volumes, essentially concentrating vectors prior to administration. Utilizing a combination of dextran 3000 and sucrose, we demonstrate that complexes of polyethylenimine (PEI) and DNA lyophilized at 0.1 mg/mL can be concentrated tenfold upon rehydration, resulting in an isotonic formulation containing 1 mg/mL DNA that can provide more realistic injection volumes for animal studies, and is compatible with clinical trials involving SC and IM injection.

Immobilization of nonviral vectors during the freezing step of lyophilization.

The development of nonviral vectors as commercial therapeutics will require formulations that are sufficiently stable to allow shipping and storage for prolonged periods. Given the well-known instability of these systems as aqueous suspensions, it would be desirable to develop lyophilized formulations that are resistant to shipping stress and can be stored for extended periods at ambient temperatures. Previous studies have shown that aggregation and structural changes resulting in reduced transfection rates can occur during the freezing step of lyophilization. While it has been clearly demonstrated that freezing-induced damage is promoted by vector crowding that results from the reduced volume of unfrozen solution, the precise mechanism of damage has yet to be fully elucidated, i.e., damage may occur due to ice formation and/or during incubation in the frozen state. In this study, we investigate the time- and temperature-dependence of damage during freezing and demonstrate that aggregation can occur while frozen vector suspensions are incubated at a constant temperature. Aggregation is not seen during incubation at temperatures below T(g)', and can also be avoided above the glass transition temperature under some conditions. Our data are consistent with a model describing the mobility of vectors in the unfrozen sucrose solution being sufficiently restricted such that inter-particle interactions are prevented in the frozen state. Furthermore, the protection achieved during freezing at temperatures above T(g)' is applicable to a complete lyophilization cycle (i.e., freezing and drying), and provides stabilization at higher primary drying temperatures.

Effects of PEGylation on the preservation of cationic lipid/DNA complexes during freeze-thawing and lyophilization.

The incorporation of components with covalently attached polyethylene glycol (PEG) into nonviral vectors has been shown to prevent aggregation in serum and extend the circulating half-life of lipid/DNA complexes (lipoplexes) in vivo. The tendency of synthetic vectors to aggregate during processing and storage also represents a significant obstacle in the development of lipoplexes as marketable pharmaceutical products. The extreme instability of lipoplexes formulated as aqueous suspensions has generated interest in preserving nonviral vectors as frozen or lyophilized formulations. Previous work has demonstrated that stabilizing excipients are capable of protecting lipoplexes during freezing and lyophilization, but there is little known about the ability of PEGylation to protect vectors during these stresses. This study incorporates up to 10% by weight dioleoyl phosphatidylethanolamine conjugated to PEG-2000 and PEG-5000 into lipoplexes and assesses the maintenance of particle size and transfection after agitation, freeze-thawing, and lyophilization. Our results indicate that the incorporation of PEGylated components alone (up to 10% by weight) is insufficient to preserve particle size during these stresses. However, when sucrose was employed in combination with PEGylated components, a small protective effect of PEGylation was observed.

The stability of lyophilized lipid/DNA complexes during prolonged storage.

It is well known that excipients are required to protect nonviral vectors during the lyophilization process. The goal of this study is to describe the stability of lyophilized nonviral vector preparations on pharmaceutically relevant timescales and provide insight into the factors that govern long-term stability of vectors in the dried state. Lipid/DNA complexes were lyophilized in glucose, sucrose, or trehalose and stored for a period of up to 2 years at five different temperatures (-20, 4, 22, 40, 60 degrees C). We evaluated simultaneously the physico-chemical characteristics (size, zeta potential, ethidium bromide (EtBr) accessibility, supercoiled DNA content) and the ability of vector formulations to transfect COS-7 cells at different time intervals. In addition, a fluorescence assay was utilized to assess levels of ROS in the dried cake after storage. The physical state of each formulation was evaluated by determination of the glass transition temperature and residual moisture content, before and after storage. Results from our stability study show that a progressive degradation of lipid/DNA complexes occurs in terms of transfection rates, particle size, dye accessibility, and supercoil content, even when samples are stored at low temperatures (e.g., -20 degrees C). Furthermore, our preliminary results on the quantification of free radicals in rehydrated formulations emphasize the importance of developing strategies to prevent the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) during prolonged storage in the dried state.

Stepwise or linear decrease in penetrance of type 1 diabetes with lower-risk HLA genotypes over the past 40 years.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to test if the proportion of new-onset diabetic subjects with the HLA-DR3/4-DQB1*0302 genotype is decreasing over time. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed HLA class II genotype frequencies over time in two large populations with type 1 diabetes diagnosed at ≤18 years of age. There were 4,075 subjects from the Type 1 Diabetes Genetics Consortium (T1DGC) and 1,675 subjects from the Barbara Davis Center (BDC). RESULTS: Both T1DGC and BDC cohorts showed a decrease of the highest-risk HLA-DR3/4-DQB1*0302 genotype over time. This decrease was greatest over time in T1DGC subjects with age of onset ≤5 years (P = 0.004) and onset between ages 6 and 10 years (P = 0.002). The overall percent of HLA-DR3/4-DQB1*0302 was greater in the T1DGC population compared with the BDC population. There was an increased percent over time of other HLA genotypes without HLA-DR3 or -DR4 in T1DGC new onsets (P = 0.003), and the trend was similar in BDC subjects (P = 0.08). Analyzing time trend, there appears to be a large stepwise decrease in percent DR3/4 in the 1980s in T1DGC subjects with onset age <5 years (P = 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: The change in frequency of multiple different genotypes and a possible stepwise decrease in percent DR3/4 suggest a change in genetic risk factors and environmental determinants of type 1 diabetes. Larger studies are needed to confirm the changing pattern of genetic risk because a stepwise change may have direct bearing on defining critical environmental determinants of type 1 diabetes.

Additional autoimmune disease found in 33% of patients at type 1 diabetes onset.

OBJECTIVE: We sought to define the prevalence of nonislet, organ-specific autoantibodies at diagnosis of type 1 diabetes and to determine the prevalence of comorbid autoimmune diseases. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Children (n = 491) diagnosed with type 1 diabetes at the Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes were screened for autoimmune thyroid disease (thyroid peroxidase autoantibodies [TPOAb]), celiac disease (tissue transglutaminase autoantibodies [TTGAb]), and Addison disease (21-hydroxylase autoantibodies [21OHAb]). RESULTS: Of the 491 children, 161 had at least one nonislet autoantibody, and of these, 122 (24.8%) were positive for TPOAb, and 15 of the 122 (12.3%) had autoimmune thyroid disease. There were 57 (11.6%) who were positive for TTGAb, of whom 14 (24.6%) had celiac disease. Five (1.0%) were positive for 21OHAb, of whom one had Addison disease. CONCLUSIONS: Many autoantibody-positive subjects present with additional autoimmune disorders. Detection of these autoantibodies at type 1 diabetes onset may prevent complications associated with delayed diagnosis of these disorders.

Replication and further characterization of a Type 1 diabetes-associated locus at the telomeric end of the major histocompatibility complex.

BACKGROUND: We recently reported an association between Type 1 diabetes and the telomeric major histocompatibility complex (MHC) single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs1233478. As further families have been analyzed in the Type 1 Diabetes Genetics Consortium (T1DGC), we tested replication of the association and, with more data, analyzed haplotypic associations. METHODS: An additional 2717 case and 1315 control chromosomes have been analyzed from the T1DGC, with human leukocyte antigen (HLA) typing and data for 2837 SNPs across the MHC region. RESULTS: We confirmed the association of rs1233478 (new data only: P=2.2E-5, OR=1.4). We also found two additional SNPs nearby that were significantly associated with Type 1 diabetes (new data only rs3131020: P=8.3E-9, OR=0.65; rs1592410: P=2.2E-8, OR=1.5). For studies of Type 1 diabetes in the MHC region, it is critical to account for linkage disequilibrium with the HLA genes. Logistic regression analysis of these new data indicated that the effects of rs3131020 and rs1592410 on Type 1 diabetes risk are independent of HLA alleles (rs3131020: P=2.3E-3, OR=0.73; rs1592410: P=2.1E-3, OR=1.4). Haplotypes of 12 SNPs (including the three highly significant SNPs) stratify diabetes risk (high risk, protective, and neutral), with high-risk haplotypes limited to approximately 20,000 bp in length. The 20,000-bp region is telomeric of the UBD gene and contains LOC729653, a hypothetical gene. CONCLUSIONS: We believe that polymorphisms of the telomeric MHC locus LOC729653 may confer risk for Type 1 diabetes.

Dominant suppression of Addison's disease associated with HLA-B15.

CONTEXT: Autoimmune Addison's disease (AD) is the major cause of primary adrenal failure in developed nations. Autoantibodies to 21-hydroxylase (21OH-AA) are associated with increased risk of progression to AD. Highest genetic risk is associated with the Major Histocompatibility region (MHC), specifically human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DR3 haplotypes (containing HLA-B8) and HLA-DR4. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was the further characterization of AD risk associated with MHC alleles. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: MHC genotypes were determined for HLA-DRB1, DQA1, DQB1, MICA, HLA-B, and HLA-A in 168 total individuals with 21OH-AA (85 with AD at referral and 83 with positive 21OH-AA but without AD at referral). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Genotype was evaluated in 21OH-AA-positive individuals. Outcomes were compared with general population controls and type 1 diabetes patients. RESULTS: In HLA-DR4+ individuals, HLA-B15 was found in only one of 55 (2%) with AD vs. 24 of 63 (40%) 21OH-AA-positive nonprogressors (P = 2 × 10(-7)) and 518 of 1558 (33%) HLA-DR4 patients with type 1 diabetes (P = 1 × 10(-8)). On prospective follow-up, none of the HLA-B15-positive, 21-hydroxylase-positive individuals progressed to AD vs. 25% non-HLA-B15 autoantibody-positive individuals by life table analysis (P = 0.03). Single nucleotide polymorphism analysis revealed the HLA-DR/DQ region associated with risk and HLA-B15 were separated by multiple intervening single-nucleotide polymorphism haplotypes. CONCLUSIONS: HLA-B15 is not associated with protection from 21OH-AA formation but is associated with protection from progression to AD in 21OH-AA-positive individuals. To our knowledge, this is one of the most dramatic examples of genetic disease suppression in individuals who already have developed autoantibodies and of novel dominant suppression of an autoimmune disease by a class I HLA allele.

Haplotype analysis discriminates genetic risk for DR3-associated endocrine autoimmunity and helps define extreme risk for Addison's disease.

CONTEXT: Multiple autoimmune disorders (e.g. Addison's disease, type 1 diabetes, celiac disease) are associated with HLA-DR3, but it is likely that alleles of additional genes in linkage disequilibrium with HLA-DRB1 contribute to disease. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to characterize major histocompatability complex (MHC) haplotypes conferring extreme risk for autoimmune Addison's disease (AD). DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Eighty-six 21-hydroxylase autoantibody-positive, nonautoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 1, Caucasian individuals collected from 1992 to 2009 with clinical AD from 68 families (12 multiplex and 56 simplex) were genotyped for HLA-DRB1, HLA-DQB1, MICA, HLA-B, and HLA-A as well as high density MHC single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis for 34. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: AD and genotype were measured. RESULT: Ninety-seven percent of the multiplex individuals had both HLA-DR3 and HLA-B8 vs. 60% of simplex AD patients (P = 9.72 × 10(-4)) and 13% of general population controls (P = 3.00 × 10(-19)). The genotype DR3/DR4 with B8 was present in 85% of AD multiplex patients, 24% of simplex patients, and 1.5% of control individuals (P = 4.92 × 10(-191)). The DR3-B8 haplotype of AD patients had HLA-A1 less often (47%) than controls (81%, P = 7.00 × 10(-5)) and type 1 diabetes patients (73%, P = 1.93 × 10(-3)). Analysis of 1228 SNPs across the MHC for individuals with AD revealed a shorter conserved haplotype (3.8) with the loss of the extended conserved 3.8.1 haplotype approximately halfway between HLA-B and HLA-A. CONCLUSION: Extreme risk for AD, especially in multiplex families, is associated with haplotypic DR3 variants, in particular a portion (3.8) but not all of the conserved 3.8.1 haplotype.

Homozygosity of the polymorphism MICA5.1 identifies extreme risk of progression to overt adrenal insufficiency among 21-hydroxylase antibody-positive patients with type 1 diabetes.

CONTEXT: Autoimmunity associated with Addison's disease (AD) can be detected by measuring 21-hydroxylase (21OH) autoantibodies. Subjects with type 1 diabetes (T1D) are at increased risk for AD. Genetic factors including HLA-DRB1*0404 and MICA have been associated with AD in populations with and without T1D. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to examine the effect of the MICA5.1 allele in subjects with 21OH autoantibodies on progression to AD. DESIGN: Two components were used: 1) a cross-sectional study with subjects with AD identified and enrolled from September 1993 to November 2008 and 2) a cohort study prospectively following up patients with T1D who screened positive for 21OH autoantibodies. SETTING: Subjects were identified from the Barbara Davis Center and through the National Adrenal Diseases Foundation. PATIENTS: Sixty-three subjects with AD were referred through the National Adrenal Diseases Foundation (AD referrals). Sixty-three subjects with positive 21OH antibodies from the Barbara Davis Center were followed up for progression to AD, and 11 were diagnosed with AD (progressors). RESULTS: Seventy-three percent of progressors (eight of 11) and 57% of AD referrals (36 of 63) were MICA5.1 homozygous (P = ns). Overall, 59% of patients with AD (44 of 74) were MICA5.1/5.1 compared with 17% of nonprogressors (nine of 52) (P < 0.0001) and 19% of normal DR3/4-DQB1*0302 controls (64 of 336) (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Identifying extreme risk should facilitate monitoring of progression from 21OH antibody positivity to overt AD. The HLA-DR3/0404 genotype defines high-risk subjects for adrenal autoimmunity. MICA5.1/5.1 may define those at highest risk for progression to overt AD, a feature unique to AD and distinct from T1D.