Glutamate-Mediated Down-Regulation of the Multidrug-Resistance Protein BCRP/ABCG2 in Porcine and Human Brain Capillaries.

Breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) functions as a major molecular gatekeeper at the blood-brain barrier. Considering its impact on access to the brain by therapeutic drugs and harmful xenobiotics, it is of particular interest to elucidate the mechanisms of its regulation. Excessive glutamate concentrations have been reported during epileptic seizures or as a consequence of different brain insults including brain ischemia. Previously, we have demonstrated that glutamate can trigger an induction of the transporter P-glycoprotein. These findings raised the question whether other efflux transporters are affected in a comparable manner. Glutamate exposure proved to down-regulate BCRP transport function and expression in isolated porcine capillaries. The reduction was efficaciously prevented by coincubation with N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist MK-801. The involvement of the NMDA receptor in the down-regulation of BCRP was further confirmed by experiments showing an effect of NMDA exposure on brain capillary BCRP transport function and expression. Pharmacological targeting of cyclooxygenase-1 and -2 (COX-1 and -2) using the nonselective inhibitor indomethacin, COX-1 inhibitor SC-560, and COX-2 inhibitor celecoxib revealed a contribution of COX-2 activity to the NMDA receptor's downstream signaling events affecting BCRP. Translational studies were performed using human capillaries isolated from surgical specimens of epilepsy patients. The findings confirmed a glutamate-induced down-regulation of BCRP transport activity in human capillaries, which argued against major species differences. In conclusion, our data reveal a novel mechanism of BCRP down-regulation in porcine and human brain capillaries. Moreover, together with previous data sets for P-glycoprotein, the findings point to a contrasting impact of the signaling pathway on the regulation of BCRP and P-glycoprotein. The effect of glutamate and arachidonic acid signaling on BCRP function might have implications for brain drug delivery and for radiotracer brain access in epilepsy patients and patients with other brain insults.

Dynamic regulation of P-glycoprotein in human brain capillaries.

Considering its role as a major blood-brain barrier gatekeeper, the dynamic regulation of the efflux transporter P-glycoprotein is of considerable functional relevance. In particular, disease-associated alterations in transport function might affect central nervous system drug efficacy. Thus, targeting regulatory signaling cascades might render a basis for novel therapeutic approaches. Using capillaries freshly prepared from patient tissue resected during epilepsy surgery, we demonstrate dynamic regulation of P-glycoprotein in human brain capillaries. Glutamate proved to up-regulate P-glycoprotein efflux transport in a significant manner via endothelial NMDA receptors. Both inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 and antagonism at the glycine-binding site of the NMDA receptor prevented the glutamate-mediated induction of P-glycoprotein transport function in human capillaries. In conclusion, the data argue against species differences in the signaling factors increasing endothelial P-glycoprotein transport function in response to glutamate exposure. Targeting of cyclooxygenase-2 and of the NMDA receptor glycine-binding site was confirmed as an efficacious approach to control P-glycoprotein function. The findings might render a basis for translational development of add-on approaches to improve brain penetration and efficacy of drugs.

Effects of bradykinin B2 receptor stimulation at submucosal ganglia from rat distal colon.

Bradykinin acts as an inflammatory mediator in the gut. In the present study we characterized bradykinin-induced changes in the intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) in whole-mount submucosal preparations from rat distal colon and examined the bradykinin receptors and subsequent signalling cascades involved. Bradykinin (2.10(-10)-2.10(-7)mol/l) evoked a concentration-dependent increase in [Ca(2+)](i) in about 90% of the investigated neurones. This Ca(2+) response was abolished by the bradykinin B(2) receptor antagonist HOE 140. The B(2) receptor agonist [Hyp(3)]-bradykinin mimicked the kinin response. In contrast, the B(1) receptor antagonist [des-Arg(10)]-HOE 140 and the B(1) receptor agonist bradykinin fragment 1-8 were ineffective. Immunohistochemical experiments confirmed the presence of bradykinin B(2) receptors in submucosal neurones. The effect of bradykinin on [Ca(2+)](i) was not mediated by a release of prostaglandins, as it was resistant against the cyclooxygenase inhibitor indomethacin. Blocking of G(q/11) proteins with YM-254890 suppressed the action of bradykinin, revealing that neuronal bradykinin B(2) receptors are coupled to this G protein. However, the subsequent signalling cascade differed from the classical phospholipase C signalling pathway, as the bradykinin response was resistant against the phospholipase C inhibitor U-73221, the ryanodine receptor antagonist dehydroryanodine, and only marginally sensitive against the blocker of IP(3)-receptors xestospongin C. Vice versa, the effect of bradykinin was nearly completely dependent on the presence of external Ca(2+) and could be reduced by lanthanum, a blocker of voltage-operated Ca(2+) channels, suggesting that the bradykinin-induced Ca(2+) response is achieved by an influx from the extracellular space via voltage-operated Ca(2+) channels.

Bradykinin-induced depolarisation and Ca(2+) influx through voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels in rat submucosal neurons.

The aim of the present study was the investigation of the mechanism, by which bradykinin B(2) receptor stimulation evokes an increase of the cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration in rat submucosal plexus. In ganglionic cells within the intact submucosal plexus, the Ca(2+)-response evoked by bradykinin was suppressed by Ni(2+), suggesting that Ca(2+) enters the cell through voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels (Ca(v) channels). Inhibition of Ca(v) channel subtypes P, T and R with omega-agatoxin IVA, flunarizine, and SNX-482 did not affect the response to bradykinin. In contrast, verapamil, omega-conotoxin GVIA, and omega-conotoxin MVIIC attenuated the actions of bradykinin, indicating the involvement of the L-, N- and Q-subtypes of Ca(v) channels. The combination of these three blockers had a strong inhibitory action on the bradykinin response. In order to study the mechanism of activation of Ca(v) channels by bradykinin, isolated submucosal neurons in culture were used. Immunocytochemical stainings revealed that these neurons expressed the bradykinin B(2) receptor, while the B(1) receptor was absent. Isolated submucosal glial cells did not express the bradykinin B(2) receptor. Whole-cell patch-clamp measurements of submucosal neurons showed that bradykinin induced a depolarisation of the membrane in average of 14mV. The ionic mechanism underlying the depolarisation was identified with current measurements at two different membrane potentials (-81 and 0mV). The current associated to Na(+) influx was not changed by bradykinin, whereas the current representing K(+) outflux was reduced by 26%. The present results suggest that at submucosal neurons from the rat colon bradykinin induces a depolarisation by decreasing the K(+) conductance, followed by activation of the Ca(v) channels, which mediates the increase of the cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration.