Genetic and immune landscape evolution in MMR-deficient colorectal cancer.

Mismatch repair-deficient (MMRd) colorectal cancers (CRCs) have high mutation burdens, which make these tumours immunogenic and many respond to immune checkpoint inhibitors. The MMRd hypermutator phenotype may also promote intratumour heterogeneity (ITH) and cancer evolution. We applied multiregion sequencing and CD8 and programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) immunostaining to systematically investigate ITH and how genetic and immune landscapes coevolve. All cases had high truncal mutation burdens. Despite pervasive ITH, driver aberrations showed a clear hierarchy. Those in WNT/ß-catenin, mitogen-activated protein kinase, and TGF-ß receptor family genes were almost always truncal. Immune evasion (IE) drivers, such as inactivation of genes involved in antigen presentation or IFN-γ signalling, were predominantly subclonal and showed parallel evolution. These IE drivers have been implicated in immune checkpoint inhibitor resistance or sensitivity. Clonality assessments are therefore important for the development of predictive immunotherapy biomarkers in MMRd CRCs. Phylogenetic analysis identified three distinct patterns of IE driver evolution: pan-tumour evolution, subclonal evolution, and evolutionary stasis. These, but neither mutation burdens nor heterogeneity metrics, significantly correlated with T-cell densities, which were used as a surrogate marker of tumour immunogenicity. Furthermore, this revealed that genetic and T-cell infiltrates coevolve in MMRd CRCs. Low T-cell densities in the subgroup without any known IE drivers may indicate an, as yet unknown, IE mechanism. PD-L1 was expressed in the tumour microenvironment in most samples and correlated with T-cell densities. However, PD-L1 expression in cancer cells was independent of T-cell densities but strongly associated with loss of the intestinal homeobox transcription factor CDX2. This explains infrequent PD-L1 expression by cancer cells and may contribute to a higher recurrence risk of MMRd CRCs with impaired CDX2 expression. © 2023 The Authors. The Journal of Pathology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of The Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

RTEL1 maintains genomic stability by suppressing homologous recombination.

Homologous recombination (HR) is an important conserved process for DNA repair and ensures maintenance of genome integrity. Inappropriate HR causes gross chromosomal rearrangements and tumorigenesis in mammals. In yeast, the Srs2 helicase eliminates inappropriate recombination events, but the functional equivalent of Srs2 in higher eukaryotes has been elusive. Here, we identify C. elegans RTEL-1 as a functional analog of Srs2 and describe its vertebrate counterpart, RTEL1, which is required for genome stability and tumor avoidance. We find that rtel-1 mutant worms and RTEL1-depleted human cells share characteristic phenotypes with yeast srs2 mutants: lethality upon deletion of the sgs1/BLM homolog, hyperrecombination, and DNA damage sensitivity. In vitro, purified human RTEL1 antagonizes HR by promoting the disassembly of D loop recombination intermediates in a reaction dependent upon ATP hydrolysis. We propose that loss of HR control after deregulation of RTEL1 may be a critical event that drives genome instability and cancer.

Ultra-Sensitive Mutation Detection and Genome-Wide DNA Copy Number Reconstruction by Error-Corrected Circulating Tumor DNA Sequencing.

BACKGROUND: Circulating free DNA sequencing (cfDNA-Seq) can portray cancer genome landscapes, but highly sensitive and specific technologies are necessary to accurately detect mutations with often low variant frequencies. METHODS: We developed a customizable hybrid-capture cfDNA-Seq technology using off-the-shelf molecular barcodes and a novel duplex DNA molecule identification tool for enhanced error correction. RESULTS: Modeling based on cfDNA yields from 58 patients showed that this technology, requiring 25 ng of cfDNA, could be applied to >95% of patients with metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC). cfDNA-Seq of a 32-gene, 163.3-kbp target region detected 100% of single-nucleotide variants, with 0.15% variant frequency in spike-in experiments. Molecular barcode error correction reduced false-positive mutation calls by 97.5%. In 28 consecutively analyzed patients with mCRC, 80 out of 91 mutations previously detected by tumor tissue sequencing were called in the cfDNA. Call rates were similar for point mutations and indels. cfDNA-Seq identified typical mCRC driver mutations in patients in whom biopsy sequencing had failed or did not include key mCRC driver genes. Mutations only called in cfDNA but undetectable in matched biopsies included a subclonal resistance driver mutation to anti-EGFR antibodies in KRAS, parallel evolution of multiple PIK3CA mutations in 2 cases, and TP53 mutations originating from clonal hematopoiesis. Furthermore, cfDNA-Seq off-target read analysis allowed simultaneous genome-wide copy number profile reconstruction in 20 of 28 cases. Copy number profiles were validated by low-coverage whole-genome sequencing. CONCLUSIONS: This error-corrected, ultradeep cfDNA-Seq technology with a customizable target region and publicly available bioinformatics tools enables broad insights into cancer genomes and evolution. CLINICALTRIALSGOV IDENTIFIER: NCT02112357.

HCLK2 is essential for the mammalian S-phase checkpoint and impacts on Chk1 stability.

Here, we show that the human homologue of the Caenorhabditis elegans biological clock protein CLK-2 (HCLK2) associates with the S-phase checkpoint components ATR, ATRIP, claspin and Chk1. Consistent with a critical role in the S-phase checkpoint, HCLK2-depleted cells accumulate spontaneous DNA damage in S-phase, exhibit radio-resistant DNA synthesis, are impaired for damage-induced monoubiquitination of FANCD2 and fail to recruit FANCD2 and Rad51 (critical components of the Fanconi anaemia and homologous recombination pathways, respectively) to sites of replication stress. Although Thr 68 phosphorylation of the checkpoint effector kinase Chk2 remains intact in the absence of HCLK2, claspin phosphorylation and degradation of the checkpoint phosphatase Cdc25A are compromised following replication stress as a result of accelerated Chk1 degradation. ATR phosphorylation is known to both activate Chk1 and target it for proteolytic degradation, and depleting ATR or mutation of Chk1 at Ser 345 restored Chk1 protein levels in HCLK2-depleted cells. We conclude that HCLK2 promotes activation of the S-phase checkpoint and downstream repair responses by preventing unscheduled Chk1 degradation by the proteasome.

Secondary mutations in BRCA2 associated with clinical resistance to a PARP inhibitor.

PARP inhibitors (PARPi) for the treatment of BRCA1 or BRCA2 deficient tumours are currently the focus of seminal clinical trials exploiting the concept of synthetic lethality. Although clinical resistance to PARPi has been described, the mechanism underlying this has not been elucidated. Here, we investigate tumour material from patients who had developed resistance to the PARPi olaparib, subsequent to showing an initial clinical response. Massively parallel DNA sequencing of treatment-naive and post-olaparib treatment biopsies identified tumour-specific BRCA2 secondary mutations in olaparib-resistant metastases. These secondary mutations restored full-length BRCA2 protein, and most likely cause olaparib resistance by re-establishing BRCA2 function in the tumour cells.

The genomic landscape of oesophagogastric junctional adenocarcinoma.

The incidence of oesophagogastric junctional (OGJ) adenocarcinoma is rising rapidly in western countries, in contrast to the declining frequency of distal gastric carcinoma. Treatment options for adenocarcinomas involving the oesophagogastric junction are limited and the overall prognosis is extremely poor. To determine the genomic landscape of OGJ adenocarcinoma, exomes of eight tumours and matched germline DNA were subjected to massively parallel DNA sequencing. Microsatellite instability was observed in three tumours which coincided with an elevated number of somatic mutations. In total, 117 genes were identified that had predicted coding alterations in more than one tumour. Potentially actionable coding mutations were identified in 67 of these genes, including those in CR2, HGF , FGFR4, and ESRRB. Twenty-nine genes harbouring somatic coding mutations and copy number changes in the MSS OGJ dataset are also known to be altered with similar predicted functional consequence in other tumour types. Compared with the published mutational profile of gastric cancers, 49% (57/117) of recurrently mutated genes were unique to OGJ tumours. TP53, SYNE1, and ARID1A were amongst the most frequently mutated genes in a larger OGJ cohort. Our study provides an insight into the mutational landscape of OGJ adenocarcinomas and confirms that this is a highly mutated and heterogeneous disease. Furthermore, we have uncovered somatic mutations in therapeutically relevant genes which may represent candidate drug targets.

The MRT-1 nuclease is required for DNA crosslink repair and telomerase activity in vivo in Caenorhabditis elegans.

The telomerase reverse transcriptase adds de novo DNA repeats to chromosome termini. Here we define Caenorhabditis elegans MRT-1 as a novel factor required for telomerase-mediated telomere replication and the DNA-damage response. MRT-1 is composed of an N-terminal domain homologous to the second OB-fold of POT1 telomere-binding proteins and a C-terminal SNM1 family nuclease domain, which confer single-strand DNA-binding and processive 3'-to-5' exonuclease activity, respectively. Furthermore, telomerase activity in vivo depends on a functional MRT-1 OB-fold. We show that MRT-1 acts in the same telomere replication pathway as telomerase and the 9-1-1 DNA-damage response complex. MRT-1 is dispensable for DNA double-strand break repair, but functions with the 9-1-1 complex to promote DNA interstrand cross-link (ICL) repair. Our data reveal MRT-1 as a dual-domain protein required for telomerase function and ICL repair, which raises the possibility that telomeres and ICL lesions may share a common feature that plays a critical role in de novo telomere repeat addition.

Multifactorial Remodeling of the Cancer Immunopeptidome by IFNγ.

IFNγ alters the immunopeptidome presented on HLA class I (HLA-I), and its activity on cancer cells is known to be important for effective immunotherapy responses. We performed proteomic analyses of untreated and IFNγ-treated colorectal cancer patient-derived organoids and combined this with transcriptomic and HLA-I immunopeptidomics data to dissect mechanisms that lead to remodeling of the immunopeptidome through IFNγ. IFNγ-induced changes in the abundance of source proteins, switching from the constitutive to the immunoproteasome, and differential upregulation of different HLA alleles explained some, but not all, observed peptide abundance changes. By selecting for peptides which increased or decreased the most in abundance, but originated from proteins with limited abundance changes, we discovered that the amino acid composition of presented peptides also influences whether a peptide is upregulated or downregulated on HLA-I through IFNγ. The presence of proline within the peptide core was most strongly associated with peptide downregulation. This was validated in an independent dataset. Proline substitution in relevant core positions did not influence the predicted HLA-I binding affinity or stability, indicating that proline effects on peptide processing may be most relevant. Understanding the multiple factors that influence the abundance of peptides presented on HLA-I in the absence or presence of IFNγ is important to identify the best targets for antigen-specific cancer immunotherapies such as vaccines or T-cell receptor engineered therapeutics. SIGNIFICANCE: IFNγ remodels the HLA-I-presented immunopeptidome. We showed that peptide-specific factors influence whether a peptide is upregulated or downregulated and identified a preferential loss or downregulation of those with proline near the peptide center. This will help selecting immunotherapy target antigens which are consistently presented by cancer cells.

Mutational signatures impact the evolution of anti-EGFR antibody resistance in colorectal cancer.

Anti-EGFR antibodies such as cetuximab are active against KRAS/NRAS wild-type colorectal cancers (CRCs), but acquired resistance invariably evolves. It is unknown which mutational mechanisms enable resistance evolution and whether adaptive mutagenesis (a transient cetuximab-induced increase in mutation generation) contributes in patients. Here, we investigate these questions in exome sequencing data from 42 baseline and progression biopsies from cetuximab-treated CRCs. Mutation loads did not increase from baseline to progression, and evidence for a contribution of adaptive mutagenesis was limited. However, the chemotherapy-induced mutational signature SBS17b was the main contributor of specific KRAS/NRAS and EGFR driver mutations that are enriched at acquired resistance. Detectable SBS17b activity before treatment predicted shorter progression-free survival and the evolution of these specific mutations during subsequent cetuximab treatment. This result suggests that chemotherapy mutagenesis can accelerate resistance evolution. Mutational signatures may be a new class of cancer evolution predictor.

Computational Image Analysis of T-Cell Infiltrates in Resectable Gastric Cancer: Association with Survival and Molecular Subtypes.

BACKGROUND: Gastric and gastro-esophageal junction cancers (GCs) frequently recur after resection, but markers to predict recurrence risk are missing. T-cell infiltrates have been validated as prognostic markers in other cancer types, but not in GC because of methodological limitations of past studies. We aimed to define and validate the prognostic role of major T-cell subtypes in GC by objective computational quantification. METHODS: Surgically resected chemotherapy-naïve GCs were split into discovery (n = 327) and validation (n = 147) cohorts. CD8 (cytotoxic), CD45RO (memory), and FOXP3 (regulatory) T-cell densities were measured through multicolor immunofluorescence and computational image analysis. Cancer-specific survival (CSS) was assessed. All statistical tests were two-sided. RESULTS: CD45RO-cell and FOXP3-cell densities statistically significantly predicted CSS in both cohorts. Stage, CD45RO-cell, and FOXP3-cell densities were independent predictors of CSS in multivariable analysis; mismatch repair (MMR) and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) status were not statistically significant. Combining CD45RO-cell and FOXP3-cell densities into the Stomach Cancer Immune Score showed highly statistically significant (all P ≤ .002) CSS differences (0.9 years median CSS to not reached). T-cell infiltrates were highest in EBV-positive GCs and similar in MMR-deficient and MMR-proficient GCs. CONCLUSION: The validation of CD45RO-cell and FOXP3-cell densities as prognostic markers in GC may guide personalized follow-up or (neo)adjuvant treatment strategies. Only those 20% of GCs with the highest T-cell infiltrates showed particularly good CSS, suggesting that a small subgroup of GCs is highly immunogenic. The potential for T-cell densities to predict immunotherapy responses should be assessed. The association of high FOXP3-cell densities with longer CSS warrants studies into the biology of regulatory T cells in GC.

Author Correction: Extreme intratumour heterogeneity and driver evolution in mismatch repair deficient gastro-oesophageal cancer.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Extreme intratumour heterogeneity and driver evolution in mismatch repair deficient gastro-oesophageal cancer.

Mismatch repair deficient (dMMR) gastro-oesophageal adenocarcinomas (GOAs) show better outcomes than their MMR-proficient counterparts and high immunotherapy sensitivity. The hypermutator-phenotype of dMMR tumours theoretically enables high evolvability but their evolution has not been investigated. Here we apply multi-region exome sequencing (MSeq) to four treatment-naive dMMR GOAs. This reveals extreme intratumour heterogeneity (ITH), exceeding ITH in other cancer types >20-fold, but also long phylogenetic trunks which may explain the exquisite immunotherapy sensitivity of dMMR tumours. Subclonal driver mutations are common and parallel evolution occurs in RAS, PIK3CA, SWI/SNF-complex genes and in immune evasion regulators. MSeq data and evolution analysis of single region-data from 64 MSI GOAs show that chromosome 8 gains are early genetic events and that the hypermutator-phenotype remains active during progression. MSeq may be necessary for biomarker development in these heterogeneous cancers. Comparison with other MSeq-analysed tumour types reveals mutation rates and their timing to determine phylogenetic tree morphologies.

Circulating Tumour DNA Sequencing Identifies a Genetic Resistance-Gap in Colorectal Cancers with Acquired Resistance to EGFR-Antibodies and Chemotherapy.

Epidermal growth factor receptor antibodies (EGFR-Abs) confer a survival benefit in patients with RAS wild-type metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC), but resistance invariably occurs. Previous data showed that only a minority of cancer cells harboured known genetic resistance drivers when clinical resistance to single-agent EGFR-Abs had evolved, supporting the activity of non-genetic resistance mechanisms. Here, we used error-corrected ctDNA-sequencing (ctDNA-Seq) of 40 cancer genes to identify drivers of resistance and whether a genetic resistance-gap (a lack of detectable genetic resistance mechanisms in a large fraction of the cancer cell population) also occurs in RAS wild-type mCRCs treated with a combination of EGFR-Abs and chemotherapy. We detected one MAP2K1/MEK1 mutation and one ERBB2 amplification in 2/3 patients with primary resistance and KRAS, NRAS, MAP2K1/MEK1 mutations and ERBB2 aberrations in 6/7 patients with acquired resistance. In vitro testing identified MAP2K1/MEK1 P124S as a novel driver of EGFR-Ab resistance. Mutation subclonality analyses confirmed a genetic resistance-gap in mCRCs treated with EGFR-Abs and chemotherapy, with only 13.42% of cancer cells harboring identifiable resistance drivers. Our results support the utility of ctDNA-Seq to guide treatment allocation for patients with resistance and the importance of investigating further non-canonical EGFR-Ab resistance mechanisms, such as microenvironmentally-mediated resistance. The detection of MAP2K1 mutations could inform trials of MEK-inhibitors in these tumours.

Human SNM1A suppresses the DNA repair defects of yeast pso2 mutants.

Pso2/Snm1 plays a key role in the repair of DNA interstrand cross-links in yeast. Human cells possess three orthologues of Pso2; SNM1A, SNM1B/Apollo and SNM1C/Artemis. Studies using mammalian cells disrupted or depleted for these genes have yielded equivocal evidence that any of these is a true functional homologues of the yeast gene. Here we show that ectopic expression of only one of the three human orthologues, hSNM1A, effectively suppresses the sensitivity of yeast pso2 (snm1) disruptants to cross-linking agents. Two other phenotypes of the pso2 mutants are also partially rescued by ectopic expression of hSNM1A, namely the double-strand repair break defect observed during cross-link processing in pso2 cells, as well as the spontaneous intrachromatid recombination defect of pso2 msh2 double mutants. Finally, we show that recombinant hSNM1A is a 5'-exonuclease, as also recently reported for the yeast Pso2 protein. Together our data suggest that hSnm1A is a functional homologue of yeast Pso2/Snm1.

C. elegans: a model of Fanconi anemia and ICL repair.

Fanconi anemia (FA) is a severe recessive disorder with a wide range of clinical manifestations [M. Levitus, H. Joenje, J.P. de Winter, The Fanconi anemia pathway of genomic maintenance, Cell Oncol. 28 (2006) 3-29]. In humans, 13 complementation groups have been identified to underlie FA: A, B, C, D1, D2, E, F, G, I, J, L, M, and N [W. Wang, Emergence of a DNA-damage response network consisting of Fanconi anaemia and BRCA proteins, Nat. Rev. Genet. 8 (2007) 735-748]. Cells defective for any of these genes display chromosomal aberrations and sensitivity to DNA interstrand cross-links (ICLs). It has therefore been suggested that the 13 FA proteins constitute a pathway for the repair of ICLs, and that a deficiency in this repair process causes genomic instability leading to the different clinical phenotypes. However, the exact nature of this repair pathway, or even whether all 13 FA proteins are involved at some stage of a linear repair process, remains to be defined. Undoubtedly, the recent identification and characterisation of FA homologues in model organisms, such as Caenorhabditis elegans, will help facilitate an understanding of the function of the FA proteins by providing new analytical tools. To date, sequence homologues of five FA genes have been identified in C. elegans. Three of these homologues have been confirmed: brc-2 (FANCD1/BRCA2), fcd-2 (FANCD2), and dog-1 (FANCJ/BRIP1); and two remain to be characterised: W02D3.10 (FANCI) and drh-3 (FANCM). Here we review how the nematode can be used to study FA-associated DNA repair, focusing on what is known about the ICL repair genes in C. elegans and which important questions remain for the field.

Inhibitors of the proteasome suppress homologous DNA recombination in mammalian cells.

Proteasome inhibitors are novel antitumor agents against multiple myeloma and other malignancies. Despite the increasing clinical application, the molecular basis of their antitumor effect has been poorly understood due to the involvement of the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway in multiple cellular metabolisms. Here, we show that treatment of cells with proteasome inhibitors has no significant effect on nonhomologous end joining but suppresses homologous recombination (HR), which plays a key role in DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair. In this study, we treat human cells with proteasome inhibitors and show that the inhibition of the proteasome reduces the efficiency of HR-dependent repair of an artificial HR substrate. We further show that inhibition of the proteasome interferes with the activation of Rad51, a key factor for HR, although it does not affect the activation of ATM, gammaH2AX, or Mre11. These data show that the proteasome-mediated destruction is required for the promotion of HR at an early step. We suggest that the defect in HR-mediated DNA repair caused by proteasome inhibitors contributes to antitumor effect, as HR plays an essential role in cellular proliferation. Moreover, because HR plays key roles in the repair of DSBs caused by chemotherapeutic agents such as cisplatin and by radiotherapy, proteasome inhibitors may enhance the efficacy of these treatments through the suppression of HR-mediated DNA repair pathways.

Detecting and Tracking Circulating Tumour DNA Copy Number Profiles during First Line Chemotherapy in Oesophagogastric Adenocarcinoma.

DNA somatic copy number aberrations (SCNAs) are key drivers in oesophagogastric adenocarcinoma (OGA). Whether minimally invasive SCNA analysis of circulating tumour (ct)DNA can predict treatment outcomes and reveal how SCNAs evolve during chemotherapy is unknown. We investigated this by low-coverage whole genome sequencing (lcWGS) of ctDNA from 30 patients with advanced OGA prior to first-line chemotherapy and on progression. SCNA profiles were detectable pretreatment in 23/30 (76.7%) patients. The presence of liver metastases, primary tumour in situ, or of oesophageal or junctional tumour location predicted for a high ctDNA fraction. A low ctDNA concentration associated with significantly longer overall survival. Neither chromosomal instability metrics nor ploidy correlated with chemotherapy outcome. Chromosome 2q and 8p gains before treatment were associated with chemotherapy responses. lcWGS identified all amplifications found by prior targeted tumour tissue sequencing in cases with detectable ctDNA as well as finding additional changes. SCNA profiles changed during chemotherapy, indicating that cancer cell populations evolved during treatment; however, no recurrent SCNA changes were acquired at progression. Tracking the evolution of OGA cancer cell populations in ctDNA is feasible during chemotherapy. The observation of genetic evolution warrants investigation in larger series and with higher resolution techniques to reveal potential genetic predictors of response and drivers of chemotherapy resistance. The presence of liver metastasis is a potential biomarker for the selection of patients with high ctDNA content for such studies.

Immunopeptidomics of colorectal cancer organoids reveals a sparse HLA class I neoantigen landscape and no increase in neoantigens with interferon or MEK-inhibitor treatment.

BACKGROUND: Patient derived organoids (PDOs) can be established from colorectal cancers (CRCs) as in vitro models to interrogate cancer biology and its clinical relevance. We applied mass spectrometry (MS) immunopeptidomics to investigate neoantigen presentation and whether this can be augmented through interferon gamma (IFNγ) or MEK-inhibitor treatment. METHODS: Four microsatellite stable PDOs from chemotherapy refractory and one from a treatment naïve CRC were expanded to replicates with 100 million cells each, and HLA class I and class II peptide ligands were analyzed by MS. RESULTS: We identified an average of 9936 unique peptides per PDO which compares favorably against published immunopeptidomics studies, suggesting high sensitivity. Loss of heterozygosity of the HLA locus was associated with low peptide diversity in one PDO. Peptides from genes without detectable expression by RNA-sequencing were rarely identified by MS. Only 3 out of 612 non-silent mutations encoded for neoantigens that were detected by MS. In contrast, computational HLA binding prediction estimated that 304 mutations could generate neoantigens. One hundred ninety-six of these were located in expressed genes, still exceeding the number of MS-detected neoantigens 65-fold. Treatment of four PDOs with IFNγ upregulated HLA class I expression and qualitatively changed the immunopeptidome, with increased presentation of IFNγ-inducible genes. HLA class II presented peptides increased dramatically with IFNγ treatment. MEK-inhibitor treatment showed no consistent effect on HLA class I or II expression or the peptidome. Importantly, no additional HLA class I or II presented neoantigens became detectable with any treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Only 3 out of 612 non-silent mutations encoded for neoantigens that were detectable by MS. Although MS has sensitivity limits and biases, and likely underestimated the true neoantigen burden, this established a lower bound of the percentage of non-silent mutations that encode for presented neoantigens, which may be as low as 0.5%. This could be a reason for the poor responses of non-hypermutated CRCs to immune checkpoint inhibitors. MEK-inhibitors recently failed to improve checkpoint-inhibitor efficacy in CRC and the observed lack of HLA upregulation or improved peptide presentation may explain this.

CEA expression heterogeneity and plasticity confer resistance to the CEA-targeting bispecific immunotherapy antibody cibisatamab (CEA-TCB) in patient-derived colorectal cancer organoids.

BACKGROUND: The T cell bispecific antibody cibisatamab (CEA-TCB) binds Carcino-Embryonic Antigen (CEA) on cancer cells and CD3 on T cells, which triggers T cell killing of cancer cell lines expressing moderate to high levels of CEA at the cell surface. Patient derived colorectal cancer organoids (PDOs) may more accurately represent patient tumors than established cell lines which potentially enables more detailed insights into mechanisms of cibisatamab resistance and sensitivity. METHODS: We established PDOs from multidrug-resistant metastatic CRCs. CEA expression of PDOs was determined by FACS and sensitivity to cibisatamab immunotherapy was assessed by co-culture of PDOs and allogeneic CD8 T cells. RESULTS: PDOs could be categorized into 3 groups based on CEA cell-surface expression: CEAhi (n = 3), CEAlo (n = 1) and CEAmixed PDOs (n = 4), that stably maintained populations of CEAhi and CEAlo cells, which has not previously been described in CRC cell lines. CEAhi PDOs were sensitive whereas CEAlo PDOs showed resistance to cibisatamab. PDOs with mixed expression showed low sensitivity to cibisatamab, suggesting that CEAlo cells maintain cancer cell growth. Culture of FACS-sorted CEAhi and CEAlo cells from PDOs with mixed CEA expression demonstrated high plasticity of CEA expression, contributing to resistance acquisition through CEA antigen loss. RNA-sequencing revealed increased WNT/ß-catenin pathway activity in CEAlo cells. Cell surface CEA expression was up-regulated by inhibitors of the WNT/ß-catenin pathway. CONCLUSIONS: Based on these preclinical findings, heterogeneity and plasticity of CEA expression appear to confer low cibisatamab sensitivity in PDOs, supporting further clinical evaluation of their predictive effect in CRC. Pharmacological inhibition of the WNT/ß-catenin pathway may be a rational combination to sensitize CRCs to cibisatamab. Our novel PDO and T cell co-culture immunotherapy models enable pre-clinical discovery of candidate biomarkers and combination therapies that may inform and accelerate the development of immuno-oncology agents in the clinic.

Genomic and Transcriptomic Determinants of Therapy Resistance and Immune Landscape Evolution during Anti-EGFR Treatment in Colorectal Cancer.

Despite biomarker stratification, the anti-EGFR antibody cetuximab is only effective against a subgroup of colorectal cancers (CRCs). This genomic and transcriptomic analysis of the cetuximab resistance landscape in 35 RAS wild-type CRCs identified associations of NF1 and non-canonical RAS/RAF aberrations with primary resistance and validated transcriptomic CRC subtypes as non-genetic predictors of benefit. Sixty-four percent of biopsies with acquired resistance harbored no genetic resistance drivers. Most of these had switched from a cetuximab-sensitive transcriptomic subtype at baseline to a fibroblast- and growth factor-rich subtype at progression. Fibroblast-supernatant conferred cetuximab resistance in vitro, confirming a major role for non-genetic resistance through stromal remodeling. Cetuximab treatment increased cytotoxic immune infiltrates and PD-L1 and LAG3 immune checkpoint expression, potentially providing opportunities to treat cetuximab-resistant CRCs with immunotherapy.