Effects of depression, metabolic syndrome, and cardiorespiratory fitness on mortality: results from the Cooper Center Longitudinal Study.

BACKGROUND: Depression and metabolic syndrome (MetS) are frequently comorbid disorders that are independently associated with premature mortality. Conversely, cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) is associated with reduced mortality risk. These factors may interact to impact mortality; however, their effects have not been assessed concurrently. This analysis assessed the mortality risk of comorbid depression/MetS and the effect of CRF on mortality in those with depression/MetS. METHODS: Prospective study of 47 702 adults in the Cooper Center Longitudinal Study. Mortality status was attained from the National Death Index. History of depression was determined by patient response (yes or no) to a standardized medical history questionnaire. MetS was categorized using the American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute criteria. CRF was estimated from the final speed/grade of a treadmill graded exercise test. RESULTS: 13.9% reported a history of depression, 21.4% met criteria for MetS, and 3.0% met criteria for both MetS and history of depression. History of depression (HR = 1.24, p = 0.003) and MetS (HR = 1.28, p < 0.001) were independently associated with an increased mortality risk, with the greatest mortality risk among individuals with both a history of depression and MetS (HR = 1.59, p < 0.001). Higher CRF was associated with a significantly lower risk of mortality (p < 0.001) in all individuals, including those with MetS and/or a history of depression. CONCLUSIONS: Those with higher levels CRF had reduced mortality risk in the context of depression/MetS. Interventions that improve CRF could have substantial impact on the health of persons with depression/MetS.

Demonstration of the need for cardiovascular and pulmonary normative data for cancer survivors.

Despite evidence that cancer and its treatments severely reduce cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), normative data for cancer survivors do not exist. The present study identifies age and gender-specific CRF distributions in a cancer population. The use of cancer-specific normative CRF data may help stratify initial fitness status and assess improvements in response to exercise interventions in cancer survivors. Data from 703 cancer survivors were analyzed for this study. Quintiles were compiled for peak oxygen consumption (VO2peak), forced vital capacity (FVC), and forced expiratory volume (FEV1) for males and females in 5 age groups (19-39, 40-49, 50-59, 60-69, and ≥70 years of age). VO2peak values for the cancer population were significantly lower than the general US population. The cancer population average in each age group fell within the "very poor" classification of VO2peak values for the general population. FVC values in the cancer population were similar to the general population. Cancer survivors had very low age group-specific VO2peak values compared to the apparently healthy general US population. Previously, CRF values of cancer survivors were compared to normative values for the apparently healthy general population, which yielded imprecise classifications of initial fitness and changes in fitness, resulting in patient discouragement.

Associations between cardiorespiratory fitness and C-reactive protein in men.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the association between cardiorespiratory fitness and C-reactive protein (CRP), with adjustment for weight and within weight categories. METHODS AND RESULTS: We calculated median and adjusted geometric mean CRP levels, percentages of individuals with an elevated CRP (> or =2.00 mg/L), and odds ratios of elevated CRP across 5 levels of cardiorespiratory fitness for 722 men. CRP values were adjusted for age, body mass index, vitamin use, statin medication use, aspirin use, the presence of inflammatory disease, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes, and smoking habit. We found an inverse association of CRP across fitness levels (P for trend<0.001), with the highest adjusted CRP value in the lowest fitness quintile (1.64 [1.27 to 2.11] mg/L) and the lowest adjusted CRP value in the highest fitness quintile (0.70 [0.60 to 0.80] mg/L). Similar results were found for the prevalence of elevated CRP across fitness quintiles. We used logistic regression to model the adjusted odds for elevated CRP and found that compared with the referent first quintile, the second (odds ratio [OR] 0.43, 95% CI 0.22 to 0.85), third (OR 0.33, 95% CI 0.17 to 0.65), fourth (OR 0.23, 95% CI 0.12 to 0.47), and fifth (OR 0.17, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.37) quintiles of fitness had significantly lower odds of elevated CRP. Similar results were found when examining the CRP-fitness relation within categories of body fatness (normal weight, overweight, and obese) and waist girth (<102 or > or =102 cm). CONCLUSIONS: Cardiorespiratory fitness levels were inversely associated with CRP values and the prevalence of elevated CRP values in this sample of men from the Aerobics Center Longitudinal Study.

Usefulness of cardiorespiratory fitness as a predictor of all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality in men with systemic hypertension.

There is an inverse gradient of mortality across levels of cardiorespiratory fitness in healthy adults; however, the association of fitness to mortality in persons with comorbidities such as hypertension is not fully understood. This study quantifies the relation of cardiorespiratory fitness to all-cause mortality and cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality in hypertensive men. In this observational cohort study, we calculated death rates for low, moderate, and high fitness categories in normotensive (n = 15,726) and hypertensive (n = 3,184) men, and in men without a history of hypertension but with elevated blood pressure (BP) (systolic BP > or = 140 or diastolic BP > or = 90 mm Hg) at baseline (n = 3,257). The participants were 22,167 men (average age 42.6 +/- 9.2 years [mean +/- SD]) who underwent a medical examination that included a maximal exercise test during 1970 to 1993, with mortality follow-up to December 31, 1994. We identified 628 deaths (188 from CVD) during 224,173 man-years of observation. There was an inverse linear trend across fitness groups for all-cause and CVD mortality. The relative risk (95% confidence interval [CI]), using the low fitness group as reference, for all-cause mortality in hypertensive men was 0.45 (95% CI 0.31 to 0.65) and 0.42 (95% CI 0.27 to 0.66) for moderate and high fitness groups, respectively, and in men with elevated BP, 0.49 (95% CI 0.34 to 0.70) and 0.44 (95% CI 0.29 to 0.68) for moderate and high fitness groups, respectively. The pattern of results was similar for CVD mortality. There was an inverse linear relation between fitness and death rate for all-cause mortality in both the uncontrolled and controlled hypertensive groups. This study provides evidence that moderate to high levels of cardiorespiratory fitness provide protection against all-cause and CVD mortality in hypertensive men and men without a history of hypertension but with elevated BP at examination.

Physical activity, physical fitness, and all-cause and cancer mortality: a prospective study of men and women.

We studied physical fitness and physical activity in relation to all-cause and cancer mortality in a cohort of 7080 women and 25,341 men examined at the Cooper Clinic in Dallas, Texas, during 1970 to 1989. Physical fitness was assessed at baseline by a maximal treadmill exercise test, while physical activity was self-reported on the attendant health habits questionnaire. Both men and women averaged about 43 years of age at baseline (range, 20 to 88 years), and they were followed for approximately 8 years on average. Through the end of 1989, the women contributed 52,982 person-years of observation and incurred 89 deaths, including 44 deaths due to cancer. The men contributed 211,996 person-years and incurred 601 deaths, with 179 due to cancer. After adjustment for baseline differences in age, examination year, cigarette habit, chronic illnesses, and electrocardiogram abnormalities, we found a strong inverse association between risk of all-cause mortality and level of physical fitness in both men and women (P for trend < 0.001). Physically active men also were at lower risk of all-cause mortality than were sedentary ones (P for trend = 0.01). Among women, however, self-reported physical activity was not significantly related to risk of death from all causes. The risk of mortality from cancer declined sharply across increasing levels of fitness among men (P for trend < 0.001), whereas among women the gradient was suggestive but not significant (P for trend = 0.07). Physically active men also were at lower risk of death from cancer than were sedentary men (P for trend = 0.002), but among women physical activity was unrelated to cancer mortality.

Influences of cardiorespiratory fitness levels and other predictors on cardiovascular disease mortality in men.

PURPOSE: This investigation quantifies the relation between cardiorespiratory fitness levels and cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality within strata of other CVD predictors. METHODS: Participants included 25,341 male Cooper Clinic patients who underwent a maximal graded exercise test. CVD death rates were determined for low (least fit one-fifth), moderate (next two-fifths), and high (top two-fifths) cardiorespiratory fitness categories by strata of smoking habit, blood cholesterol level, resting blood pressure, and health status. There were 226 cardiovascular deaths during 211,996 man-years of follow-up. RESULTS: For individuals with none of the major CVD predictors (smoking, elevated resting systolic blood pressure, elevated blood cholesterol), there was a strong inverse relation (P = 0.001) between fitness level and CVD mortality. An inverse relation between CVD mortality and fitness level was seen within strata of cholesterol levels and health status. No evidence of a trend (P = 0.60) for decreased mortality was seen across fitness levels for individuals with elevated systolic blood pressure; however, a strong inverse gradient (P < 0.001) was seen across fitness levels for individuals with normal systolic blood pressure. There was a tendency for association between high levels of fitness and decreased CVD mortality in smokers compared with low and moderately fit smokers (P < 0.076). There was no significant association between level of fitness and CVD mortality for individuals with multiple (two or more) predictors (P = 0.325). Approximately 20% of the 226 CVD deaths in the population studied were attributed to low fitness level. CONCLUSIONS: Moderate and high levels of cardiorespiratory fitness seem to provide some protection from CVD mortality, even in the presence of well established CVD predictors.

Retention rates and weight loss in a commercial weight loss program.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate and describe retention rates and weight loss in clients participating in a commercial weight loss program. SUBJECTS: A total of 60 164 men and women ages 18-79 years who enrolled in the Jenny Craig Platinum program between May 2001 and May 2002. METHODS: Retention rates, mean weight loss and percent weight loss were calculated on a weekly basis for the 52-week period following initial enrollment in the weight loss program. Clients were categorized based on final week of participation in the program (weeks 1-4, weeks 5-13, weeks 14-26, weeks 27-39 and weeks 40-52) and weight loss was calculated at final week. A subgroup of clients was identified based on attendance through 13, 26 and 52 weeks. Mean and percent weight loss was calculated for these subgroups of clients. RESULTS: Of the 60 164 men and women who enrolled in the weight loss program, 73% were retained in the program after 4 weeks, 42% at 13 weeks, 22% at 26 weeks and 6.6% at 52 weeks. Clients who dropped out of the program during the first 4 weeks lost 1.1+/-1.6% (mean+/-s.d.) of their initial body weight, whereas clients who dropped out between 40 and 52 weeks lost 12.0+/-7.2%. Clients in the 13-week, 26-week and 52-week cohorts lost 8.3+/-3.3, 12.6+/-5.1 and 15.6+/-7.5% of their initial body weight, respectively. CONCLUSION: Weight loss was greater among clients who were retained in the program longer. The findings from this study suggest that a commercial weight loss program can be an effective weight loss tool for individuals who remain active in the program.

Physical activity, physical fitness, and all-cause mortality in women: do women need to be active?

Physical inactivity is associated with higher mortality rates in most studies in men, but studies in women are more equivocal. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship of sedentary living habits to all-cause mortality in women. A group of 3,120 adult women completed a preventive medical examination, and were followed for approximately 8 years for mortality. There were 43 deaths and a total of 25,433 person-years observed during follow-up. Physical fitness was assessed at baseline by a maximal exercise test on a treadmill, and physical activity was estimated by a self-administered questionnaire. Age-adjusted all-cause mortality rates were significantly inversely associated with physical fitness. Death rates were 40, 16, and 7 per 10,000 person-years of follow-up across low, moderate, and high categories of physical fitness, respectively. However, death rates did not differ across low, moderate, and high categories of physical activity. These findings are different than for men in the same study, where both physical activity and physical fitness were inversely associated with mortality risk. We attribute the lack of association between physical activity and mortality in women to be due to inadequate assessment of activity, and that this also is the likely explanation for the difference in results between women and men in published studies of physical activity and mortality.

Physical fitness and all-cause mortality in hypertensive men.

All-cause death rates in normotensive and hypertensive men were examined across physical fitness levels. Subjects were 10,224 healthy normotensive men and 1,832 men who reported a history of hypertension, but were otherwise healthy. Physical fitness was determined by maximal treadmill exercise testing. Baseline preventive medical examinations were given during 1970-1981, and mortality surveillance was conducted on the cohort through 1985. There were 240 deaths in the normotensive men and 78 deaths in hypertensive men. Age-adjusted all-cause mortality rates per 10,000 man-years of follow-up in normotensive men ranged from 64.0 in the least fit quintile to 18.6 in the most fit quintile. Corresponding rates for hypertensive men were 110.5 to 24.8. Subjects were further classified into lower and higher blood pressure groups by baseline resting systolic blood pressure (less than 140 mmHg and greater than or equal to 140 mmHg). Normotensive and hypertensive men who were more fit had lower death rates compared to less fit men within both of the measured blood pressure strata. The relation between fitness and all-cause mortality held in multiple logistic regression analyses after adjustment for the influence of age, serum cholesterol, resting systolic blood pressure, body mass index, current smoking habit, and length of follow-up. We conclude that low levels of physical fitness result in an increased risk for all-cause mortality in normotensive and hypertensive men.

Improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness attenuate age-related weight gain in healthy men and women: the Aerobics Center Longitudinal Study.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the longitudinal relation of change in cardiopulmonary fitness to subsequent change in body weight in a cohort of healthy middle-aged adults. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SUBJECTS: Participants were 4599 men and 724 women (43 +/- 9 y) receiving at least three medical examinations between 1970 and 1994. Examinations included assessment of cardiorespiratory fitness by maximal exercise tests and measurement of body weight. MEASUREMENTS: Change in fitness was calculated as the difference in maximal treadmill time between the first and second examination (mean interval, 1.8 y). Weight change was calculated as the difference in body weight between the first and last examination (mean follow-up, 7.5 y). RESULTS: There was a small, yet statistically significant weight gain over the follow-up (0.61 +/- 5.29 kg for men and 1.51 +/- 4.67 kg for women; P << 0.001). Estimates from the multiple linear regression modeling show that each 1 min improvement in treadmill time, significantly attenuated weight gain in both men (b = -0.60; P << 0.001) and women (b = -0.60; P << 0.001), respectively. Moreover, each 1 min improvement in treadmill time, reduced the odds of a > or = 5 kg gain by 14% in men (odds ratios (OR)) = 0.86; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.83-0.89) and by 9% in women (OR = 0.91; 95% CI:0.83-1.00) and the odds of a > or = 10 kg gain by 21% in both men (OR = 0.79;95% CI:0.75-0.84) and women (OR = 0.79;95% CI:0.67-0.93) CONCLUSIONS: Improvements in fitness, appear important in attenuating age-related weight gain in healthy middle-aged adults. Thus, an active life-style should be promoted early and maintained through adulthood to prevent substantial weight gain and obesity with age.

Changes in physical fitness and all-cause mortality. A prospective study of healthy and unhealthy men.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the relationship between changes in physical fitness and risk of mortality in men. DESIGN: Prospective study, with two clinical examinations (mean interval between examinations, 4.9 years) to assess change or lack of change in physical fitness as associated with risk of mortality during follow-up after the subsequent examination (mean follow-up from subsequent examination, 5.1 years). SETTING: Preventive medicine clinic. STUDY PARTICIPANTS: Participants were 9777 men given two preventive medical examinations, each of which included assessment of physical fitness by maximal exercise tests and evaluation of health status. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: All cause (n = 223) and cardiovascular disease (n = 87) mortality. RESULTS: The highest age-adjusted all-cause death rate was observed in men who were unfit at both examinations (122.0/10,000 man-years); the lowest death rate was in men who were physically fit at both examinations (39.6/10,000 man-years). Men who improved from unfit to fit between the first and subsequent examinations had an age-adjusted death rate of 67.7/10,000 man-years. This is a reduction in mortality risk of 44% (95% confidence interval, 25% to 59%) relative to men who remained unfit at both examinations. Improvement in fitness was associated with lower death rates after adjusting for age, health status, and other risk factors of premature mortality. For each minute increase in maximal treadmill time between examinations, there was a corresponding 7.9% (P = .001) decrease in risk of mortality. Similar results were seen when the group was stratified by health status, and for cardiovascular disease mortality. CONCLUSIONS: Men who maintained or improved adequate physical fitness were less likely to die from all causes and from cardiovascular disease during follow-up than persistently unfit men. Physicians should encourage unfit men to improve their fitness by starting a physical activity program.

Influences of cardiorespiratory fitness and other precursors on cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality in men and women.

OBJECTIVE: To quantify the relation of cardiorespiratory fitness to cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality and to all-cause mortality within strata of other personal characteristics that predispose to early mortality. DESIGN--Observational cohort study. We calculated CVD and all-cause death rates for low (least fit 20%), moderate (next 40%), and high (most fit 40%) fitness categories by strata of smoking habit, cholesterol level, blood pressure, and health status. SETTING: Preventive medicine clinic. STUDY PARTICIPANTS: Participants were 25341 men and 7080 women who completed preventive medical examinations, including a maximal exercise test. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality. RESULTS: There were 601 deaths during 211996 man-years of follow-up, and 89 deaths during 52982 woman-years of follow-up. Independent predictors of mortality among men, with adjusted relative risks (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs), were low fitness (RR, 1.52;95% CI, 1.28-1.82), smoking (RR, 1.65; 95% CI, 1.39-1.97), abnormal electrocardiogram (RR, 1.64;95% CI, 1.34-2.01), chronic illness (RR, 1.63;95% CI, 1.37-1.95), increased cholesterol level (RR, 1.34; 95% CI, 1.13-1.59), and elevated systolic blood pressure (RR, 1.34; 95% CI, 1.13-1.59). The only statistically significant independent predictors of mortality in women were low fitness (RR, 2.10; 95% Cl, 1.36-3.21) and smoking (RR, 1.99; 95% Cl, 1.25-3.17). Inverse gradients were seen for mortality across fitness categories within strata of other mortality predictors for both sexes. Fit persons with any combination of smoking, elevated blood pressure, or elevated cholesterol level had lower adjusted death rates than low-fit persons with none of these characteristics. CONCLUSIONS: Low fitness is an important precursor of mortality. The protective effect of fitness held for smokers and nonsmokers, those with and without elevated cholesterol levels or elevated blood pressure, and unhealthy and healthy persons. Moderate fitness seems to protect against the influence of these other predictors on mortality. Physicians should encourage sedentary patients to become physically active and thereby reduce the risk of premature mortality.

Relationship between low cardiorespiratory fitness and mortality in normal-weight, overweight, and obese men.

CONTEXT: Recent guidelines for treatment of overweight and obesity include recommendations for risk stratification by disease conditions and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors, but the role of physical inactivity is not prominent in these recommendations. OBJECTIVE: To quantify the influence of low cardiorespiratory fitness, an objective marker of physical inactivity, on CVD and all-cause mortality in normal-weight, overweight, and obese men and compare low fitness with other mortality predictors. DESIGN: Prospective observational data from the Aerobics Center Longitudinal Study. SETTING: Preventive medicine clinic in Dallas, Tex. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 25714 adult men (average age, 43.8 years [SD, 10.1 years]) who received a medical examination during 1970 to 1993, with mortality follow-up to December 31, 1994. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality based on mortality predictors (baseline CVD, type 2 diabetes mellitus, high serum cholesterol level, hypertension, current cigarette smoking, and low cardiorespiratory fitness) stratified by body mass index. RESULTS: During the study period, there were 1025 deaths (439 due to CVD) during 258781 man-years of follow-up. Overweight and obese men with baseline CVD or CVD risk factors were at higher risk for all-cause and CVD mortality compared with normal-weight men without these predictors. Using normal-weight men without CVD as the referent, the strongest predictor of CVD death in obese men was baseline CVD (age- and examination year-adjusted relative risk [RR], 14.0; 95% confidence interval [CI], 9.4-20.8); RRs for obese men with diabetes mellitus, high cholesterol, hypertension, smoking, and low fitness were similar and ranged from 4.4 (95% CI, 2.7-7.1) for smoking to 5.0 (95% CI, 3.6-7.0) for low fitness. Relative risks for all-cause mortality in obese men ranged from 2.3 (95% CI, 1.7-2.9) for men with hypertension to 4.7 (95% CI, 3.6-6.1) for those with CVD at baseline. Relative risk for all-cause mortality in obese men with low fitness was 3.1 (95% CI, 2.5-3.8) and in obese men with diabetes mellitus 3.1 (95% CI, 2.3-4.2) and as slightly higher than the RRs for obese men who smoked or had high cholesterol levels. Low fitness was an independent predictor of mortality in all body mass index groups after adjustment for other mortality predictors. Approximately 50% (n = 1674) of obese men had low fitness, which led to a population-attributable risk of 39% for CVD mortality and 44% for all-cause mortality. Baseline CVD had population attributable risks of 51% and 27% for CVD and all-cause mortality, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: In this analysis, low cardiorespiratory fitness was a strong and independent predictor of CVD and all-cause mortality and of comparable importance with that of diabetes mellitus and other CVD risk factors.