Tracking the evolution of CNS remyelinating lesion in mice with neutral red dye.

Animal models of central nervous system (CNS) demyelination, including toxin-induced focal demyelination and immune-mediated demyelination through experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), have provided valuable insights into the mechanisms of neuroinflammation and CNS remyelination. However, the ability to track changes in transcripts, proteins, and metabolites, as well as cellular populations during the evolution of a focal lesion, has remained challenging. Here, we developed a method to label CNS demyelinating lesions by the intraperitoneal injection of a vital dye, neutral red (NR), into mice before killing. We demonstrate that NR-labeled lesions can be easily identified on the intact spinal cord in both lysolecithin- and EAE-mediated demyelination models. Using fluorescence microscopy, we detected NR in activated macrophages/microglia and astrocytes, but not in oligodendrocytes present in lesions. Importantly, we successfully performed RT-qPCR, Western blot, flow cytometry, and mass spectrometry analysis of precisely dissected NR-labeled lesions at 5, 10, and 20 d postlesion (dpl) and found differential changes in transcripts, proteins, cell populations, and metabolites in lesions over the course of remyelination. Therefore, NR administration is a simple and powerful method to track and analyze the detailed molecular, cellular, and metabolic changes that occur within the lesion microenvironment over time following CNS injury. Furthermore, this method can be used to identify molecular and metabolic pathways that regulate neuroinflammation and remyelination and facilitate the development of therapies to promote repair in demyelinating disorders such as multiple sclerosis.

Extrinsic Factors Driving Oligodendrocyte Lineage Cell Progression in CNS Development and Injury.

Oligodendrocytes (OLs) generate myelin membranes for the rapid propagation of electrical signals along axons in the central nervous system (CNS) and provide metabolites to support axonal integrity and function. Differentiation of OLs from oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) is orchestrated by a multitude of intrinsic and extrinsic factors in the CNS. Disruption of this process, or OL loss in the developing or adult brain, as observed in various neurological conditions including hypoxia/ischemia, stroke, and demyelination, results in axonal dystrophy, neuronal dysfunction, and severe neurological impairments. While much is known regarding the intrinsic regulatory signals required for OL lineage cell progression in development, studies from pathological conditions highlight the importance of the CNS environment and external signals in regulating OL genesis and maturation. Here, we review the recent findings in OL biology in the context of the CNS physiological and pathological conditions, focusing on extrinsic factors that facilitate OL development and regeneration.

Fusion of lysosomes with secretory organelles leads to uncontrolled exocytosis in the lysosomal storage disease mucolipidosis type IV.

Mutations in TRPML1 cause the lysosomal storage disease mucolipidosis type IV (MLIV). The role of TRPML1 in cell function and how the mutations cause the disease are not well understood. Most studies focus on the role of TRPML1 in constitutive membrane trafficking to and from the lysosomes. However, this cannot explain impaired neuromuscular and secretory cells' functions that mediate regulated exocytosis. Here, we analyzed several forms of regulated exocytosis in a mouse model of MLIV and, opposite to expectations, we found enhanced exocytosis in secretory glands due to enlargement of secretory granules in part due to fusion with lysosomes. Preliminary exploration of synaptic vesicle size, spontaneous mEPSCs, and glutamate secretion in neurons provided further evidence for enhanced exocytosis that was rescued by re-expression of TRPML1 in neurons. These features were not observed in Niemann-Pick type C1. These findings suggest that TRPML1 may guard against pathological fusion of lysosomes with secretory organelles and suggest a new approach toward developing treatment for MLIV.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor inhibits calcium channel activation, exocytosis, and endocytosis at a central nerve terminal.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a neurotrophin that regulates synaptic function and plasticity and plays important roles in neuronal development, survival, and brain disorders. Despite such diverse and important roles, how BDNF, or more generally speaking, neurotrophins affect synapses, particularly nerve terminals, remains unclear. By measuring calcium currents and membrane capacitance during depolarization at a large mammalian central nerve terminal, the rat calyx of Held, we report for the first time that BDNF slows down calcium channel activation, including P/Q-type channels, and inhibits exocytosis induced by brief depolarization or single action potentials, inhibits slow and rapid endocytosis, and inhibits vesicle mobilization to the readily releasable pool. These presynaptic mechanisms may contribute to the important roles of BDNF in regulating synapses and neuronal circuits and suggest that regulation of presynaptic calcium channels, exocytosis, and endocytosis are potential mechanisms by which neurotrophins achieve diverse neuronal functions.

Midbrain-derived neurotrophins support survival of immature striatal projection neurons.

Neuronal death occurs at several stages during embryogenesis and early postnatal development; however, it is unknown how the survival of immature neurons at their origin is regulated before these cells migrate to their final destination. Striatal projection neurons, known as medium-sized spiny neurons (MSNs), in both the direct and indirect pathways are generated in the lateral ganglionic eminence (LGE). Here we report that brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurotrophin-3 are anterogradely transported from midbrain dopaminergic neurons and support the survival of immature MSNs of the indirect and direct pathways, respectively, in the developing mouse striatum and LGE. These results reveal a novel mode of neurotrophic action in the nervous system by linking neurotrophins to the survival of immature neurons at their origin, while also suggesting that innervating neurons may control the size of their targeting neuronal population in the brain.

TrkB receptor controls striatal formation by regulating the number of newborn striatal neurons.

In the peripheral nervous system, target tissues control the final size of innervating neuronal populations by producing limited amounts of survival-promoting neurotrophic factors during development. However, it remains largely unknown if the same principle works to regulate the size of neuronal populations in the developing brain. Here we show that neurotrophin signaling mediated by the TrkB receptor controls striatal size by promoting the survival of developing medium-sized spiny neurons (MSNs). Selective deletion of the gene for the TrkB receptor in striatal progenitors, using the Dlx5/6-Cre transgene, led to a hindpaw-clasping phenotype and a 50% loss of MSNs without affecting striatal interneurons. This loss resulted mainly from increased apoptosis of newborn MSNs within their birthplace, the lateral ganglionic eminence. Among MSNs, those expressing the dopamine receptor D2 (DRD2) were most affected, as indicated by a drastic loss of these neurons and specific down-regulation of the DRD2 and enkephalin. This specific phenotype of mutant animals is likely due to preferential TrkB expression in DRD2 MSNs. These findings suggest that neurotrophins can control the size of neuronal populations in the brain by promoting the survival of newborn neurons before they migrate to their final destinations.

Myeloid cell-associated aromatic amino acid metabolism facilitates CNS myelin regeneration.

Regulation of myeloid cell activity is critical for successful myelin regeneration (remyelination) in demyelinating diseases, such as multiple sclerosis (MS). Here, we show aromatic alpha-keto acids (AKAs) generated from the amino acid oxidase, interleukin-4 induced 1 (IL4I1), promote efficient remyelination in mouse models of MS. During remyelination, myeloid cells upregulated the expression of IL4I1. Conditionally knocking out IL4I1 in myeloid cells impaired remyelination efficiency. Mice lacking IL4I1 expression exhibited a reduction in the AKAs, phenylpyruvate, indole-3-pyruvate, and 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate, in remyelinating lesions. Decreased AKA levels were also observed in people with MS, particularly in the progressive phase when remyelination is impaired. Oral administration of AKAs modulated myeloid cell-associated inflammation, promoted oligodendrocyte maturation, and enhanced remyelination in mice with focal demyelinated lesions. Transcriptomic analysis revealed AKA treatment induced a shift in metabolic pathways in myeloid cells and upregulated aryl hydrocarbon receptor activity in lesions. Our results suggest myeloid cell-associated aromatic amino acid metabolism via IL4I1 produces AKAs in demyelinated lesions to enable efficient remyelination. Increasing AKA levels or targeting related pathways may serve as a strategy to facilitate the regeneration of myelin in inflammatory demyelinating conditions.

BDNF promotes differentiation and maturation of adult-born neurons through GABAergic transmission.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) has been implicated in regulating adult neurogenesis in the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the dentate gyrus; however, the mechanism underlying this regulation remains unclear. In this study, we found that Bdnf mRNA localized to distal dendrites of dentate gyrus granule cells isolated from wild-type (WT) mice, but not from Bdnf(klox/klox) mice where the long 3' untranslated region (UTR) of Bdnf mRNA is truncated. KCl-induced membrane depolarization stimulated release of dendritic BDNF translated from long 3' UTR Bdnf mRNA in cultured hippocampal neurons, but not from short 3' UTR Bdnf mRNA. Bdnf(klox/klox) mice exhibited reduced expression of glutamic acid decarboxylase 65 (a GABA synthase), increased proliferation of progenitor cells, and impaired differentiation and maturation of newborn neurons in the SGZ. These deficits in adult neurogenesis were rescued with administration of phenobarbital, an enhancer of GABA(A) receptor activity. Furthermore, we observed similar neurogenesis deficits in mice where the receptor for BDNF, TrkB, was selectively abolished in parvalbumin (PV)-expressing GABAergic interneurons. Thus, our data suggest that locally synthesized BDNF in dendrites of granule cells promotes differentiation and maturation of progenitor cells in the SGZ by enhancing GABA release, at least in part, from PV-expressing GABAergic interneurons.

PKC modulator bryostatin-1 therapeutically targets CNS innate immunity to attenuate neuroinflammation and promote remyelination.

In multiple sclerosis (MS), microglia and macrophages within the central nervous system (CNS) play an important role in determining the balance between myelin repair and demyelination/neurodegeneration. Phagocytic and regenerative functions of these CNS innate immune cells support remyelination, whereas chronic and maladaptive inflammatory activation promotes lesion expansion and disability, particularly in the progressive forms of MS. No currently approved drugs convincingly target microglia and macrophages within the CNS, contributing to the critical lack of therapies promoting remyelination and slowing progression in MS. Here, we found that the protein kinase C (PKC)-modulating drug bryostatin-1 (bryo-1), a CNS-penetrant compound with an established human safety profile, produces a shift in microglia and CNS macrophage transcriptional programs from pro-inflammatory to regenerative phenotypes, both in vitro and in vivo. Treatment of microglia with bryo-1 prevented the activation of neurotoxic astrocytes while stimulating scavenger pathways, phagocytosis, and secretion of factors that promote oligodendrocyte differentiation. In line with these findings, systemic treatment with bryo-1 augmented remyelination following a focal demyelinating injury in vivo. Our results demonstrate the potential of bryo-1 and functionally related PKC modulators as myelin regenerative and neuroprotective agents in MS and other neurologic diseases through therapeutic targeting of microglia and CNS-associated macrophages.

Impact of amino acids on microglial activation and CNS remyelination.

Amino acids and their derivatives function as building blocks as well as signaling molecules to modulate various cellular processes in living organisms. In mice, amino acids accumulate in demyelinated lesions and return to basal levels during remyelination. Studies have found that amino acids and their metabolites modulate immune activity in the central nervous system (CNS) and influence oligodendrocyte differentiation and remyelination efficiency. In this review, we discuss current studies on amino acid metabolism in the context of CNS remyelination. By understanding the mechanisms of amino acid signaling and metabolism in demyelinated lesions, we may deepen our understanding of compartmentalized CNS inflammation in demyelinating disease like multiple sclerosis (MS) and provide evidence to develop novel pharmacological therapies targeting amino acid metabolism to prevent disease worsening.

EphA7 isoforms differentially regulate cortical dendrite development.

The shape of a neuron facilitates its functionality within neural circuits. Dendrites integrate incoming signals from axons, receiving excitatory input onto small protrusions called dendritic spines. Therefore, understanding dendritic growth and development is fundamental for discerning neural function. We previously demonstrated that EphA7 receptor signaling during cortical development impacts dendrites in two ways: EphA7 restricts dendritic growth early and promotes dendritic spine formation later. Here, the molecular basis for this shift in EphA7 function is defined. Expression analyses reveal that EphA7 full-length (EphA7-FL) and truncated (EphA7-T1; lacking kinase domain) isoforms are dynamically expressed in the developing cortex. Peak expression of EphA7-FL overlaps with dendritic elaboration around birth, while highest expression of EphA7-T1 coincides with dendritic spine formation in early postnatal life. Overexpression studies in cultured neurons demonstrate that EphA7-FL inhibits both dendritic growth and spine formation, while EphA7-T1 increases spine density. Furthermore, signaling downstream of EphA7 shifts during development, such that in vivo inhibition of mTOR by rapamycin in EphA7-mutant neurons ameliorates dendritic branching, but not dendritic spine phenotypes. Finally, direct interaction between EphA7-FL and EphA7-T1 is demonstrated in cultured cells, which results in reduction of EphA7-FL phosphorylation. In cortex, both isoforms are colocalized to synaptic fractions and both transcripts are expressed together within individual neurons, supporting a model where EphA7-T1 modulates EphA7-FL repulsive signaling during development. Thus, the divergent functions of EphA7 during cortical dendrite development are explained by the presence of two variants of the receptor.

Rat neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors containing alpha7 subunit: pharmacological properties of ligand binding and function.

AIM: To compare pharmacological properties of heterologously expressed homomeric alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (alpha7 nAChRs) with those of native nAChRs containing alpha7 subunit (alpha7* nAChRs) in rat hippocampus and cerebral cortex. METHODS: We established a stably transfected HEK-293 cell line that expresses homomeric rat alpha7 nAChRs. We studies ligand binding profiles and functional properties of nAChRs expressed in this cell line and native rat alpha7* nAChRs in rat hippocampus and cerebral cortex. We used [(125)I]-alpha-bungarotoxin to compare ligand binding profiles in these cells with those in rat hippocampus and cerebral cortex. The functional properties of the alpha7 nAChRs expressed in this cell line were studied using whole-cell current recording. RESULTS: The newly established cell line, KXalpha7R1, expresses homomeric alpha7 nAChRs that bind [(125)I]-alpha-bungarotoxin with a K(d) value of 0.38+/-0.06 nmol/L, similar to K(d) values of native rat alpha7* nAChRs from hippocampus (K(d)=0.28+/-0.03 nmol/L) and cerebral cortex (K(d)=0.33+/-0.05 nmol/L). Using whole-cell current recording, the homomeric alpha7 nAChRs expressed in the cells were activated by acetylcholine and (-)-nicotine with EC(50) values of 280+/-19 micromol/L and 180+/-40 micromol/L, respectively. The acetylcholine activated currents were potently blocked by two selective antagonists of alpha7 nAChRs, alpha-bungarotoxin (IC(50)=19+/-2 nmol/L) and methyllycaconitine (IC(50)=100+/-10 pmol/L). A comparative study of ligand binding profiles, using 13 nicotinic ligands, showed many similarities between the homomeric alpha7 nAChRs and native alpha7* receptors in rat brain, but it also revealed several notable differences. CONCLUSION: This newly established stable cell line should be very useful for studying the properties of homomeric alpha7 nAChRs and comparing these properties to native alpha7* nAChRs.

The calyx of Held in the auditory system: Structure, function, and development.

The calyx of Held synapse plays an important role in the auditory system, relaying information about sound localization via fast and precise synaptic transmission, which is achieved by its specialized structure and giant size. During development, the calyx of Held undergoes anatomical, morphological, and physiological changes necessary for performing its functions. The large dimensions of the calyx of Held nerve terminal are well suited for direct electrophysiological recording of many presynaptic events that are difficult, if not impossible to record at small conventional synapses. This unique accessibility has been used to investigate presynaptic ion channels, transmitter release, and short-term plasticity, providing invaluable information about basic presynaptic mechanisms of transmission at a central synapse. Here, we review anatomical and physiological specializations of the calyx of Held, summarize recent studies that provide new mechanisms important for calyx development and reliable synaptic transmission, and examine fundamental presynaptic mechanisms learned from studies using calyx as a model nerve terminal. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled .

Novel pyridyl ring C5 substituted analogues of epibatidine and 3-(1-methyl-2(S)-pyrrolidinylmethoxy)pyridine (A-84543) as highly selective agents for neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors containing beta2 subunits.

Introduction of a hydrophobic or hydrogen-bonding alkynyl group into the C5 position of the pyridyl ring of epibatidine and A-84543 significantly increased the selectivity for neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) containing beta2 subunits over nAChRs containing beta4 subunits (K(i) ratio up to 92000-fold). Our data indicate that the extracellular domains of the nAChRs are sufficiently different to allow for the design of novel ligands with high affinity and selectivity for the nAChR subtypes.

BDNF signaling and survival of striatal neurons.

The striatum, a major component of the basal ganglia, performs multiple functions including control of movement, reward, and addiction. Dysfunction and death of striatal neurons are the main causes for the motor disorders associated with Huntington's disease (HD). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a member of the neurotrophin family, is among factors that promote survival and proper function of this neuronal population. Here, we review recent studies showing that BDNF determines the size of the striatum by supporting survival of the immature striatal neurons at their origin, promotes maturation of striatal neurons, and facilitates establishment of striatal connections during brain development. We also examine the role of BDNF in maintaining proper function of the striatum during adulthood, summarize the mechanisms that lead to a deficiency in BDNF signaling and subsequently striatal degeneration in HD, and highlight a potential role of BDNF as a therapeutic target for HD treatment.

Post-fusion structural changes and their roles in exocytosis and endocytosis of dense-core vesicles.

Vesicle fusion with the plasma membrane generates an Ω-shaped membrane profile. Its pore is thought to dilate until flattening (full-collapse), followed by classical endocytosis to retrieve vesicles. Alternatively, the pore may close (kiss-and-run), but the triggering mechanisms and its endocytic roles remain poorly understood. Here, using confocal and stimulated emission depletion microscopy imaging of dense-core vesicles, we find that fusion-generated Ω-profiles may enlarge or shrink while maintaining vesicular membrane proteins. Closure of fusion-generated Ω-profiles, which produces various sizes of vesicles, is the dominant mechanism mediating rapid and slow endocytosis within ~1-30 s. Strong calcium influx triggers dynamin-mediated closure. Weak calcium influx does not promote closure, but facilitates the merging of Ω-profiles with the plasma membrane via shrinking rather than full-collapse. These results establish a model, termed Ω-exo-endocytosis, in which the fusion-generated Ω-profile may shrink to merge with the plasma membrane, change in size or change in size then close in response to calcium, which is the main mechanism to retrieve dense-core vesicles.

Chronic deprivation of TrkB signaling leads to selective late-onset nigrostriatal dopaminergic degeneration.

The pathological hallmark of Parkinson's disease (PD) is a selective and progressive loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc). In the vast majority of cases the appearance of PD is sporadic, and its etiology remains unknown. Several postmortem studies demonstrate reduced levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the SNc of PD patients. Application of BDNF promotes the survival of DA neurons in PD animal models. Here we show that BDNF signaling via its TrkB receptor tyrosine kinase is important for survival of nigrostriatal DA neurons in aging brains. Immunohistochemistry revealed that the TrkB receptor was expressed in DA neurons located in the SNc and ventral tegmental area (VTA). However, a significant loss of DA neurons occurred at 12-24 months of age only in the SNc but not in the VTA of TrkB hypomorphic mice in which the TrkB receptor was expressed at a quarter to a third of the normal amount. The neuronal loss was accompanied by a decrease in dopaminergic axonal terminals in the striatum and by gliosis in both the SNc and striatum. Furthermore, nigrostriatal DA neurons in the TrkB mutant mice were hypersensitive to the neurotoxin 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP), a mitochondrial complex I inhibitor that selectively kills DA neurons. These results suggest that BDNF-to-TrkB signaling plays an important role in the long-term maintenance of the nigrostriatal system and that its deficiency may contribute to the progression of PD.

Pharmacology of the agonist binding sites of rat neuronal nicotinic receptor subtypes expressed in HEK 293 cells.

The binding affinities of agonists at heteromeric nicotinic receptors composed of rat alpha2, alpha3 and alpha4 subunits in combination with beta2 or beta4 subunits were examined in stably transfected HEK 293 cells. In most cases, the affinities of agonists were higher at receptors composed of an alpha subunit in combination with the beta2 subunit than the beta4 subunit, and in some cases this difference was quite large (>250 times), suggesting the possibility of developing subtype-selective ligands and therapeutically useful drugs.