Growth of osteosarcoma cells in a three-dimensional bone-like matrix alters their susceptibility to adeno-associated virus.

Osteosarcoma cells U2OS are partially susceptible to adeno-associated virus (AAV)-2 infection, allowing efficient synthesis of Rep proteins and, in a low percentage of cells, capsid production. It is not clear if this partial susceptibility to infection is due to the bone-cell-like nature of these cells or is a result of their transformed properties. Here, we grew osteosarcoma cells in a biomimetic three-dimensional bone-like matrix composed of calcium phosphate and chitosan, and tested whether this would increase or reduce their permissiveness to virus. The osteosarcoma cells grew in the matrix and began to express the alkaline phosphatase bone cell differentiation marker. This was accompanied by a block to their infection by AAV, as indicated by Rep and capsid production. Infection of cells growing in three-dimensional tissue-like matrices could be, in a wider context, a practical way to mimic in vivo conditions.

Hedgehog pathway regulators influence cervical cancer cell proliferation, survival and migration.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is considered to be a primary hit that causes cervical cancer. However, infection with this agent, although needed, is not sufficient for a cancer to develop. Additional cellular changes are required to complement the action of HPV, but the precise nature of these changes is not clear. Here, we studied the function of the Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway in cervical cancer. The Hh pathway can have a role in a number of cancers, including those of liver, lung and digestive tract. We found that components of the Hh pathway are expressed in several cervical cancer cell lines, indicating that there could exists an autocrine Hh signaling loop in these cells. Inhibition of Hh signaling reduces proliferation and survival of the cervical cancer cells and induces their apoptosis as seen by the up-regulation of the pro-apoptotic protein cleaved caspase 3. Our results indicate that Hh signaling is not induced directly by HPV-encoded proteins but rather that Hh-activating mutations are selected in cells initially immortalized by HPV. Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) ligand induces proliferation and promotes migration of the cervical cancer cells studied. Together, these results indicate pro-survival and protective roles of an activated Hh signaling pathway in cervical cancer-derived cells, and suggest that inhibition of this pathway may be a therapeutic option in fighting cervical cancer.

Adeno-associated virus activates an innate immune response in normal human cells but not in osteosarcoma cells.

Adeno-associated virus (AAV) is a small, DNA-containing dependovirus with promising potential as a gene delivery vehicle. Given the variety of applications of AAV-based vectors in the treatment of genetic disorders, numerous studies have focused on the immunogenicity of recombinant AAV. In general, AAV vectors appear not to induce strong inflammatory responses. We have found that AAV2, when it infects the osteosarcoma cells U2OS, can initiate part of its replicative cycle in the absence of helper virus. This does not occur in untransformed cells. We set out to test whether the cellular innate antiviral defenses control this susceptibility and found that, in nonimmune normal human fibroblasts, AAV2 induces type I interferon production and release and the accumulation of nuclear promyelocytic leukemia bodies. AAV fails to mobilize this defense pathway in the U2OS cells. This permissiveness is in large part due to impairment of the viral sensing machinery in these cells. Our investigations point to Toll-like receptor 9 as a potential intracellular sensor that detects AAV2 and triggers the antiviral state in AAV-infected untransformed cells. Efficient sensing of the AAV genome and the ensuing activation of an innate antiviral response are thus crucial cellular events dictating the parvovirus infectivity in host cells.

Combined use of multiple methodologies for the measurement of total antioxidant capacity in UK commercially available vegetable juices.

Substantial evidence exists to support the hypothesis that high fruit and vegetable consumption, rich in antioxidants, can reduce the incidence of several disease states. The aim of this study was to compare the results obtained by six spectrophotometric biochemical methods including the ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picryhydrazyl (DPPH•), 2,2-azinobis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS•⁺), copper (II) reducing capacity (CUPRAC) and Cerium (IV) reducing antioxidant capacity (CERAC) assays as well as Folin-Ciocalteu method (FC) for the measurement of total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and total polyphenols (TP) in different commercially available vegetable juices. There was a significant positive correlation between the results obtained for FRAP, ABTS•⁺, CUPRAC, CERAC and FC (0.68 ≤ r ≤ 0.96, P < 0.01). DPPH• was only correlated with CERAC (r = 0.66, P < 0.01). Beetroot juice had the highest TAC and TP regardless of the method of analysis.

Recombinant adeno-associated viral vectors are deficient in provoking a DNA damage response.

Adeno-associated virus type 2 (AAV2) provokes a DNA damage response that mimics a stalled replication fork. We have previously shown that this response is dependent on ataxia telangiectasia-mutated and Rad3-related kinase and involves recruitment of DNA repair proteins into foci associated with AAV2 DNA. Here, we investigated whether recombinant AAV2 (rAAV2) vectors are able to produce a similar response. Surprisingly, the results show that both single-stranded and double-stranded green fluorescent protein-expressing rAAV2 vectors are defective in producing such a response. We show that the DNA damage signaling initiated by AAV2 was not due to the virus-encoded Rep or viral capsid proteins. UV-inactivated AAV2 induced a response similar to that of untreated AAV2. This type of DNA damage response was not provoked by other DNA molecules, such as single-stranded bacteriophage M13 or plasmid DNAs. Rather, the results indicate that the ability of AAV2 to produce a DNA damage response can be attributed to the presence of cis-acting AAV2 DNA sequences, which are absent in rAAV2 vectors and could function as origins of replication creating stalled replication complexes. This hypothesis was tested by using a single-stranded rAAV2 vector containing the p5 AAV2 sequence that has previously been shown to enhance AAV2 replication. This vector was indeed able to trigger DNA damage signaling. These findings support the conclusion that efficient formation of AAV2 replication complexes is required for this AAV2-induced DNA damage response and provide an explanation for the poor response in rAAV2-infected cells.

Cells with defective p53-p21-pRb pathway are susceptible to apoptosis induced by p84N5 via caspase-6.

Adeno-associated virus (AAV) infection triggers a DNA damage response in the cell. This response is not induced by viral proteins but by virtue of the structure of AAV ssDNA being recognized by the cell as damaged DNA. The consequence of this is the killing of cells lacking p53 activity. We have observed that cells that lack p21 or pRb activity are also sensitive to AAV-induced cell death. We report that cells respond to AAV infection by activating two DNA damage signaling cascades. The first activates the p84N5 protein, which in turn activates caspase-6, leading to cell death. The second cascade activates the p53-21-pRb pathway, which inhibits activation of the p84N5 protein and thus prevents cell death. The result of the antagonistic interaction between these two pathways is that cells that do not exhibit functional p53-p21-pRb signaling undergo apoptosis as a consequence of AAV infection. Cells with a functional p53-21-pRb pathway are refractory to AAV-induced cell death. These results show that p53, although a proapoptotic protein, together with pRb and p21 proteins, is a member of an antiapoptotic cellular mechanism. As such, these experiments reveal features that may be exploited to specifically kill cells that lack the p53-p21-pRb pathway, such as cancer cells. The use of AAV to expose these subtle characteristics of intracellular signaling further highlights the advantages of using viruses as precision tools with which to address questions of cell biology.

Chk1 instability is coupled to mitotic cell death of p53-deficient cells in response to virus-induced DNA damage signaling.

Adeno-associated virus (AAV) DNA, by mimicking a stalled replication fork, provokes a DNA damage response that can arrest cells in the G2/M phase of the cell-cycle. This response depends strictly on DNA damage signaling kinases ATR and Chk1. Here, we used AAV to study long-term effects of DNA damage signaling in cells with altered p53 status. In HCT116 cells, in response to damage signaling, p53 represses transcription of the genes encoding mitotic regulators Cdc25C, cyclin B1, and Plk1 to establish a firm G2 arrest. Isogenic cells lacking p53 maintain these three proteins at constant levels yet can still arrest initially in G2 because Chk1 signaling inhibits their enzymatic activities. Unexpectedly, the levels of Chk1 fall abruptly in a proteasome-dependent manner after two days of arrest in G2. In p53-deficient cells, this Chk1 instability is coupled to recovery of the phosphatase activity of Cdc25C and in the kinase activities of Plk1 and Cdk1/cyclin B1. Consequently, the p53-deficient cells enter lethal mitosis. Thus, the Chk1-mediated arrest is transient: it initially causes cells to accumulate in G2 until p53-dependent transcriptional repression of mitotic proteins takes over. p53-deficient cells cannot maintain the DNA damage signaling-induced G2 arrest after Chk1 has disappeared, and continue into catastrophic mitosis. Restoring Chk1 prevents the cells from entering such mitosis. These results reveal a mechanism based on Chk1 stability that regulates mitotic entry after DNA damage and elucidate the controversial phenomenon of p53-promoted cell survival in the face of damage signaling.

Notch1 can contribute to viral-induced transformation of primary human keratinocytes.

The human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most significant causative agent in the development of cervical cancer. Despite its presence in almost all cervical cancers, HPV by itself is unable to transform a normal cell to a cancerous one. Instead, additional cellular mutations are required to supplement the HPV oncoproteins E6 and E7. Activation of the Notch1 signaling pathway has been proposed as one of the cellular changes that cooperate with the E6 and E7 proteins to cause cervical cancers. This proposition is based on: (a) the detection of active Notch1 in high-grade cervical lesions and cancers; (b) the synergism between Notch1 and E6 and E7 to transform immortalized cells; and (c) the obliteration of neoplastic properties of a cervical cancer cell line when Notch1 expression was inhibited. However, this view was put in doubt by a recent report that showed Notch1 expression is markedly reduced in cervical cancer cells, and this was attributed to the ability of Notch1 to repress the expression of the HPV E6 and E7 proteins. Here we report that although exaggerated levels of Notch1 can, indeed, adversely affect HPV E6 and E7 expression, and cellular proliferation in general, moderate levels of Notch1, together with active phosphoinositide 3 kinase, can, instead, exhibit oncogenic properties that transform primary cells containing HPV16 E6 and E7 proteins. In addition, we show that activated Notch1 is readily detected in all cervical cancer cell lines tested. Together, these results show that not only do cervical cancer cells express Notch1, but also that Notch1 signaling, in synergy with other cellular changes, can participate in the transformation of primary cells expressing E6 and E7 proteins.

Effects of a beetroot juice with high neobetanin content on the early-phase insulin response in healthy volunteers.

Produce rich in phytochemicals may alter postprandial glucose and insulin responses by interacting with the pathways that regulate glucose uptake and insulin secretion in humans. The aims of the present study were to assess the phytochemical constituents of red beetroot juice and to measure the postprandial glucose and insulin responses elicited by either 225 ml beetroot juice (BEET), a control beverage matched for macronutrient content (MCON) or a glucose beverage in healthy adults. Beetroot juice was a particularly rich source of betalain degradation compounds. The orange/yellow pigment neobetanin was measured in particularly high quantities (providing 1·3 g in the 225 ml). A total of sixteen healthy individuals were recruited, and consumed the test meals in a controlled single-blind cross-over design. Results revealed a significant lowering of the postprandial insulin response in the early phase (0-60 min) (P < 0·05) and a significantly lower glucose response in the 0-30 min phase (P < 0·05) in the BEET treatment compared with MCON. Betalains, polyphenols and dietary nitrate found in the beetroot juice may each contribute to the observed differences in the postprandial insulin concentration.

Mitotic catastrophe occurs in the absence of apoptosis in p53-null cells with a defective G1 checkpoint.

Cell death occurring during mitosis, or mitotic catastrophe, often takes place in conjunction with apoptosis, but the conditions in which mitotic catastrophe may exhibit features of programmed cell death are still unclear. In the work presented here, we studied mitotic cell death by making use of a UV-inactivated parvovirus (adeno-associated virus; AAV) that has been shown to induce a DNA damage response and subsequent death of p53-defective cells in mitosis, without affecting the integrity of the host genome. Osteosarcoma cells (U2OSp53DD) that are deficient in p53 and lack the G1 cell cycle checkpoint respond to AAV infection through a transient G2 arrest. We found that the infected U2OSp53DD cells died through mitotic catastrophe with no signs of chromosome condensation or DNA fragmentation. Moreover, cell death was independent of caspases, apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF), autophagy and necroptosis. These findings were confirmed by time-lapse microscopy of cellular morphology following AAV infection. The assays used readily revealed apoptosis in other cell types when it was indeed occurring. Taken together the results indicate that in the absence of the G1 checkpoint, mitotic catastrophe occurs in these p53-null cells predominantly as a result of mechanical disruption induced by centrosome overduplication, and not as a consequence of a suicide signal.

The DNA damage response to non-replicating adeno-associated virus: Centriole overduplication and mitotic catastrophe independent of the spindle checkpoint.

Adeno-associated virus (AAV) type 2 or UV-inactivated AAV (UV-AAV2) infection provokes a DNA damage response that leads to cell cycle arrest at the G2/M border. p53-deficient cells cannot sustain the G2 arrest, enter prolonged impaired mitosis, and die. Here, we studied how non-replicating AAV2 kills p53-deficient osteosarcoma cells. We found that the virus uncouples centriole duplication from the cell cycle, inducing centrosome overamplification that is dependent on Chk1, ATR and CDK kinases, and on G2 arrest. Interference with spindle checkpoint components Mad2 and BubR1 revealed unexpectedly that mitotic catastrophe occurs independently of spindle checkpoint function. We conclude that, in the p53-deficient cells, UV-AAV2 triggers mitotic catastrophe associated with a dramatic Chk1-dependent overduplication of centrioles and the consequent formation of multiple spindle poles in mitosis. As AAV2 acts through cellular damage response pathways, the results provide information on the role of Chk1 in mitotic catastrophe after DNA damage signaling in general.

H2AX is required for cell cycle arrest via the p53/p21 pathway.

Phosphorylation of H2AX (gammaH2AX) is an early sign of DNA damage induced by replication stalling. However, the role of H2AX in the repair of this type of DNA damage is still unclear. In this study, we used an inactivated adeno-associated virus (AAV) to induce a stalled replication fork signal and investigate the function of gammaH2AX. The cellular response to AAV provides a unique model to study gammaH2AX function, because the infection causes pannuclear H2AX phosphorylation without any signs of damage to the host genome. We found that pannuclear gammaH2AX formation is a result of ATR overactivation and diffusion but is independent of ATM. The inhibition of H2AX with RNA interference or the use of H2AX-deficient cells showed that gammaH2AX is dispensable for the formation and maintenance of DNA repair foci induced by stalled replication. However, in the absence of H2AX, the AAV-containing cells showed proteosome-dependent degradation of p21, followed by caspase-dependent mitotic catastrophe. In contrast, H2AX-proficient cells as well as H2AX-complemented H2AX(-/-) cells reacted by increasing p21 levels and arresting the cell cycle. The results establish a new role for H2AX in the p53/p21 pathway and indicate that H2AX is required for p21-induced cell cycle arrest after replication stalling.

Different modes of human papillomavirus DNA replication during maintenance.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) begins its life cycle by infecting the basal cells of the epithelium. Within these proliferating cells, the viral genomes are replicated, maintained, and passed on to the daughter cells. Using HPV episome-containing cell lines that were derived from naturally infected cervical tissues, we investigated the mode by which the viral DNAs replicate in these cells. We observed that, whereas HPV16 DNA replicated in an ordered once-per-S-phase manner in W12 cells, HPV31 DNA replicated via a random-choice mechanism in CIN612 cells. However, when HPV16 and HPV31 DNAs were separately introduced into an alternate keratinocyte cell line NIKS, they both replicated randomly. This indicates that HPV DNA is inherently capable of replicating by either random-choice or once-per-S-phase mechanisms and that the mode of HPV DNA replication is dependent on the cells that harbor the viral episome. High expression of the viral replication protein E1 in W12 cells converted HPV16 DNA replication to random-choice replication and, as such, it appears that the mode of HPV DNA replication in proliferating cells is dependent on the presence or the increased level of this protein in the host cell. The implications of these observations on maintenance, latency, and persistence are discussed.

Skin epidermis lacking the c-Myc gene is resistant to Ras-driven tumorigenesis but can reacquire sensitivity upon additional loss of the p21Cip1 gene.

The target gene(s) required for Myc-mediated tumorigenesis are still elusive. Here we show that while endogenous c-Myc is surprisingly dispensable for skin homeostasis and TPA-induced hyperplasia, c-Myc-deficient epidermis is resistant to Ras-mediated DMBA/TPAinduced tumorigenesis. This is mechanistically linked to p21(Cip1), which is induced in tumors by the activated Ras-ERK pathway but repressed by c-Myc. Acute elimination of c-Myc in established tumors leads to the up-regulation of p21(Cip1), and epidermis lacking both p21(Cip1) and c-Myc reacquires normal sensitivity to DMBA/TPA-induced tumorigenesis. This identifies c-Myc-mediated repression of p21(Cip1) as a key step for Ras-driven epidermal tumorigenesis.

Viral transport of DNA damage that mimics a stalled replication fork.

Adeno-associated virus type 2 (AAV2) infection incites cells to arrest with 4N DNA content or die if the p53 pathway is defective. This arrest depends on AAV2 DNA, which is single stranded with inverted terminal repeats that serve as primers during viral DNA replication. Here, we show that AAV2 DNA triggers damage signaling that resembles the response to an aberrant cellular DNA replication fork. UV treatment of AAV2 enhances the G2 arrest by generating intrastrand DNA cross-links which persist in infected cells, disrupting viral DNA replication and maintaining the viral DNA in the single-stranded form. In cells, such DNA accumulates into nuclear foci with a signaling apparatus that involves DNA polymerase delta, ATR, TopBP1, RPA, and the Rad9/Rad1/Hus1 complex but not ATM or NBS1. Focus formation and damage signaling strictly depend on ATR and Chk1 functions. Activation of the Chk1 effector kinase leads to the virus-induced G2 arrest. AAV2 provides a novel way to study the cellular response to abnormal DNA replication without damaging cellular DNA. By using the AAV2 system, we show that in human cells activation of phosphorylation of Chk1 depends on TopBP1 and that it is a prerequisite for the appearance of DNA damage foci.

How adeno-associated virus Rep78 protein arrests cells completely in S phase.

Adeno-associated virus Rep78 protein has antiproliferative effects on cells. It inhibits cell cycle progression, and, in particular, Rep78 induces a complete arrest within S phase, a response rarely seen after cell DNA damage. We examined how Rep78 achieves such an efficient S phase block. Rep78 inhibits Cdc25A activity by a novel means in which binding between the two proteins stabilizes Cdc25A, thus increasing its abundance, while at the same time preventing access to its substrates cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) 2 and Cdk1. This effect alone does not induce a complete S phase block. In addition, Rep78, as well as Rep68, produces nicks in the cellular chromatin, inducing a DNA damage response mediated by ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) leading to G(1) and G(2) blocks. Mutational analysis shows that the zinc finger domain and nuclease activity of Rep78 are both required for the S phase block. The results suggest that a true S phase block cannot be achieved through a single pathway, and that adeno-associated virus Rep78 protein arrests cells within S phase by interfering with two pathways that would normally lead to an S phase slow-down.

Human papillomavirus type 16 E2 protein has no effect on transcription from episomal viral DNA.

The human papillomavirus (HPV) E2 protein plays an important role in viral DNA replication. Many studies with high-risk HPVs have demonstrated that the E2 protein can also repress transcription of the E6 and E7 oncogenes. This conclusion, based on experiments carried out with cervical cancer cells bearing integrated HPV genomes, is currently assumed to be applicable to the normal HPV life cycle, in which the viral genomes are episomal. Here, we have tested experimentally whether this assumption is correct. We made use of a pair of isogenic cell lines, W12 and S12. W12 cells contain episomal HPV16 genomes, whereas S12 cells, which are derived from the W12 line, contain HPV DNA as integrated copies. When we expressed E2 in S12 cells, we observed strong repression of E6 and E7 transcription. In contrast, no effect of E2 on the transcription of these genes was detected in W12 cells. While integration of the viral genome into the host DNA contributes to the difference between W12 and S12 cells, integration by itself is not sufficient to explain this difference. Instead, the chromatin structure in the region of the E6 and E7 promoter (p97), which we show to be very different in these two cell lines, is likely to be the cause of the different responsiveness of p97 to the E2 protein. Experiments with the histone deacetylase inhibitor trichostatin A (TSA) indicated that the episomal HPV16 DNA is in a relatively inaccessible state prior to TSA treatment. Our results, together with those of others, suggest that any effect of the E2 protein on the expression of the E6 and E7 genes during the normal viral life cycle is of secondary importance compared to the function of E2 in replication.

E1 empty set E4 protein of human papillomavirus type 16 associates with mitochondria.

The human papillomavirus (HPV) E1 empty set E4 protein is the most abundantly expressed viral protein in HPV-infected epithelia. It possesses diverse activities, including the ability to bind to the cytokeratin network and to DEAD-box proteins, and in some cases induces the collapse of the former. E1 empty set E4 is also able to prevent the progression of cells into mitosis by arresting them in the G(2) phase of the cell cycle. In spite of these intriguing properties, the role of this protein in the life cycle of the virus is not clear. Here we report that after binding to and collapsing the cytokeratin network, the HPV type 16 E1 empty set E4 protein binds to mitochondria. When cytokeratin is not present in the cell, E1 empty set E4 appears associated with mitochondria soon after its synthesis. The leucine cluster within the N-terminal portion of the E1 empty set E4 protein is pivotal in mediating this association. After the initial binding to mitochondria, the E1 empty set E4 protein induces the detachment of mitochondria from microtubules, causing the organelles to form a single large cluster adjacent to the nucleus. This is followed by a severe reduction in the mitochondrial membrane potential and an induction of apoptosis. HPV DNA replication and virion production occur in terminally differentiating cells which are keratin-rich, rigid squamae that exfoliate after completion of the differentiation process. Perturbation of the cytokeratin network and the eventual induction of apoptotic properties are processes that could render these unyielding cells more fragile and ease the exit of newly synthesized HPVs for subsequent rounds of infection.