Whole-plant foods and their macromolecules: untapped approaches to modulate neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder. Recently, sustained neuroinflammatory response in microglia and astrocytes has been found to cause the deposition of amyloid beta plaques and the hyperphosphorylation of tau protein, thereby accelerating AD progression. The lipoxin A4-transcription factor nuclear factor-kappa B and mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways have been shown to play important roles in the regulation of inflammatory processes. There is growing research-based evidence suggesting that dietary whole-plant foods, such as mushrooms and berries, may be used as inhibitors for anti-neuroinflammation. The beneficial effects of whole-plant foods were mainly attributed to their high contents of functional macromolecules including polysaccharides, polyphenols, and bioactive peptides. This review provides up-to-date information on important molecular signaling pathways of neuroinflammation and discusses the anti-neuroinflammatory effects of whole-plant foods. Further, a critical evaluation of plants' macromolecular components that have the potential to prevent and/or relieve AD is provided. This work will contribute to better understanding the pathogenetic mechanism of neuroinflammation in AD and provide new approaches for AD therapy.

Selenium-enriched foods and their ingredients: As intervention for the vicious cycle between autophagy and overloaded stress responses in Alzheimer's disease.

Dysfunctional autophagy induced by excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) load and inflammation accelerates the development of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Recently, there has been an increasing interest in selenium-enriched ingredients (SEIs), such as selenoproteins, selenoamino acids and selenosugars, which could improve AD through antioxidant and anti-inflammation, as well as autophagy modulating effects. This review indicates that SEIs eliminate excessive ROS by activating the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor erythroid2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and alleviate inflammation by inhibiting the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs)/nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) pathway. Furthermore, they can activate the adenosine 5'-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway, and subsequently promote amyloid beta (Aß) clearance and reduce memory impairments. SEIs are ubiquitous in many plants and microorganisms, such as Brassicaceae vegetables, yeast, and mushroom. Enzymatic hydrolysis, as well as physical processing, such as thermal, high pressure and microwave treatment, are the main techniques to modify the properties of dietary selenium. This work highlights the fact that SEIs can inhibit inflammation and oxidative stress and provides evidence that supports the potential use of these dietary materials to be a novel strategy for improving AD.

Wool keratin as a novel alternative protein: A comprehensive review of extraction, purification, nutrition, safety, and food applications.

The growing global population and lifestyle changes have increased the demand for specialized diets that require protein and other essential nutrients for humans. Recent technological advances have enabled the use of food bioresources treated as waste as additional sources of alternative proteins. Sheep wool is an inexpensive and readily available bioresource containing 95%-98% protein, making it an outstanding potential source of protein for food and biotechnological applications. The strong structure of wool and its indigestibility are the main hurdles to achieving its potential as an edible protein. Although various methods have been investigated for the hydrolysis of wool into keratin, only a few of these, such as sulfitolysis, oxidation, and enzymatic processes, have the potential to generate edible keratin. In vitro and in vivo cytotoxicity studies reported no cytotoxicity effects of extracted keratin, suggesting its potential for use as a high-value protein ingredient that supports normal body functions. Keratin has a high cysteine content that can support healthy epithelia, glutathione synthesis, antioxidant functions, and skeletal muscle functions. With the recent spike in new keratin extraction methods, extensive long-term investigations that examine prolonged exposure of keratin generated from these techniques in animal and human subjects are required to ascertain its safety. Food applications of wool could improve the ecological footprint of sheep farming and unlock the potential of a sustainable protein source that meets demands for ethical production of animal protein.

An Update of Lectins from Marine Organisms: Characterization, Extraction Methodology, and Potential Biofunctional Applications.

Lectins are a unique group of nonimmune carbohydrate-binding proteins or glycoproteins that exhibit specific and reversible carbohydrate-binding activity in a non-catalytic manner. Lectins have diverse sources and are classified according to their origins, such as plant lectins, animal lectins, and fish lectins. Marine organisms including fish, crustaceans, and mollusks produce a myriad of lectins, including rhamnose binding lectins (RBL), fucose-binding lectins (FTL), mannose-binding lectin, galectins, galactose binding lectins, and C-type lectins. The widely used method of extracting lectins from marine samples is a simple two-step process employing a polar salt solution and purification by column chromatography. Lectins exert several immunomodulatory functions, including pathogen recognition, inflammatory reactions, participating in various hemocyte functions (e.g., agglutination), phagocytic reactions, among others. Lectins can also control cell proliferation, protein folding, RNA splicing, and trafficking of molecules. Due to their reported biological and pharmaceutical activities, lectins have attracted the attention of scientists and industries (i.e., food, biomedical, and pharmaceutical industries). Therefore, this review aims to update current information on lectins from marine organisms, their characterization, extraction, and biofunctionalities.

Production, application and health effects of banana pulp and peel flour in the food industry.

The past 20 years has seen rapid development of value-added food products. Using largely wasted fruit by-products has created a potential for sustainable use of these edible materials. The high levels of antioxidant activity, phenolic compounds, dietary fibres and resistant starch in banana pulp and peel have made this tropical fruit an outstanding source of nutritive ingredient for enrichment of foodstuffs. Accordingly, processing of separate banana parts into flour has been of interest by many researchers using different methods (oven drying, spouted bed drier, ultrasound, pulsed vacuum oven, microwave, spray drying and lyophilization). Regarding the high level of bioactive compounds, especially resistant starch in banana flour, the application of its flour in starchy foods provides a great opportunity for product development, even in gluten free foods. This review aims to provide concise evaluation of the health benefits of banana bioactive components and covers a wide range of literature conducted on the application of different parts of banana and the flour produced at various ripeness stages in the food industry. Of particular interest, the impact of drying methods on banana flour properties are discussed.

Opportunities and Implications of Pasture-Based Lamb Fattening to Enhance the Long-Chain Fatty Acid Composition in Meat.

Health-conscious consumers following dietary fat recommendations require meat that is low in saturated fat with preferably high levels of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids. This review summarizes the influence of dietary lipids from red meat on human health and examines the potential to enhance lipid composition through pasture-feeding. The role of fatty acids in plant and ruminant metabolism is discussed to highlight the complexity of ruminal digestion when trying to enhance fatty acids in meat. Generally, ruminants that consume pasture diets have been shown to produce a more desirable fatty acid composition than those fed grain and offer potential to be further enhanced by using specific plant species. Elevated polyunsaturated fat content in meat, however, tends to increase susceptibility to oxidation, which influences other meat quality characteristics including shelf-life and color. The use of specific plant species may mitigate these negative effects due to vitamin E or other antioxidants in these plants, which protect polyunsaturated fats from oxidation. When assessing the potential of plants as a natural dietary fat source, consideration must be given to environmental influences on plant fatty acid composition to ensure consistent production of meat products with high nutritive value under a range of management practices. This review also explores the potential impact of climate change on plant fatty acid composition, and the potential implications of this for meat quality.

Innovative Foods: The Future Food Supply, Nutrition and Health.

In the coming decades, feeding the growing world population is going to become a global food-supply challenge for our existing food systems [...].

Blockchain-Based Frameworks for Food Traceability: A Systematic Review.

With the rise of globalization and technological competition, the food supply chain has grown more complex due to the multiple players and factors involved in the chain. Traditional systems fail to offer effective and reliable traceability solutions considering the increasing requirement for accountability and transparency in the food supply chain. Blockchain technology has been claimed to offer the food industry a transformative future. The inherent features of blockchain, including immutability and transparency, create a dependable and secure system for tracking food products across the whole supply chain, ensuring total control over their traceability from the origin to the final consumer. This research offers a comprehensive overview of multiple models to understand how the integration of blockchain and other digital technologies has transformed the food supply chain. This comprehensive systematic review of blockchain-based food-supply-chain frameworks aimed to uncover the capability of blockchain technology to revolutionize the industry and examined the current landscape of blockchain-based food traceability solutions to identify areas for improvement. Furthermore, the research investigates recent advancements and investigates how blockchain aligns with other emerging technologies of Industry 4.0 and Web 3.0. Blockchain technology plays an important role in improving food traceability and supply-chain operations. Potential synergies between blockchain and other emerging technologies of Industry 4.0 and Web 3.0 are digitizing food supply chains, which results in better management, automation, efficiencies, sustainability, verifiability, auditability, accountability, traceability, transparency, tracking, monitoring, response times and provenance across food supply chains.

Physicochemical, biochemical and microbiological changes of jeotgal-like fermented Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) roe.

A jeotgal-like product was processed from Chinook salmon (Oncorrhynchus tshawytscha) roe. Physicochemical, biochemical, and microbiological compositions were studied during 30 days of fermentation. Fermentation decreased water activity (aw) and pH value. Total bacterial and LAB counts (log CFU/g) increased up to 12 days of processing and then no further changes occurred. Saturated fatty acids (SFA) decreased (p < 0.05), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) did not change (p > 0.05), whereas fermentation time improved polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) content significantly (p < 0.05). Astaxanthin, lutein and phospholipids (PC, LPC, PE, LPE and LPS) concentrations were found to increase, while cholesterol and tocopherol contents were decreased at the end of the fermentation (p < 0.05). This study indicates that the nutritional value of salmon roe can be enhanced by fermentation.

Impact of sodium alginate-based film loaded with resveratrol and thymol on the shelf life of cooked sausage and the inoculated Listeria monocytogenes.

In present study, sodium alginate biodegradable films containing different concentrations of resveratrol (RES: 0.002% and 0.004%) or thymol (THY: 0.5% and 1%) and their combinations were prepared, and evaluated for their effects on spoilage-related microbial profile, lipid oxidation, sensory properties, and protective effects against Listeria monocytogenes in beef mortadella sausage during 40 days storage at 4°C. The release rate of phenolic compounds was determined by the Folin-Ciocalteu test. To assess the shelf life of the product, changes in total viable count (TVC), lactic acid bacteria count (LAB), psychrotrophic bacteria count (PTC), pH levels, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) levels, and sensory characteristics (taste, color, odor, and overall acceptability) were evaluated. For the sensory evaluation, a panel of 70 semi-trained judges was selected according to their initial performance. Samples wrapped with sodium alginate films containing 1% THY (alone or combined with different concentrations of RES) exhibited lower bacterial counts compared to other experimental groups at the end of the storage period (6.01-6.35 vs. 6.71-8.17 log10 CFU/g for TVC, 5.37-5.83 vs. 6.07-7.11 log10 CFU/g for LAB, 5.08-5.18 vs. 5.40-7.23 log10 CFU/g for PTC, and 6.53-6.92 vs. 7.23-9.01 log10 CFU/g for inoculated L. monocytogenes). Sodium alginate films containing the combination of 0.004% RES and different concentrations of THY showed higher antioxidant effects than other experimental groups (TBARS values of 1.68-1.99 vs. 2.23-3.80 mg MDA/kg sample). The sodium alginate film containing 0.004% RES + 1% THY exhibited the highest antimicrobial and antioxidant activities and highest sensory scores among all treatments. These findings highlight the potential application of the sodium alginate film containing a combination of RES and THY as an active packaging material with natural preservatives in the meat products industry. This application can effectively extend the shelf life and enhance the microbial safety of clean-label cooked sausages during refrigerated storage.

Earth Worming-An Evaluation of Earthworm (Eisenia andrei) as an Alternative Food Source.

Aside from their bioremediation roles, little is known about the food and feed value of earthworms. In this study, a comprehensive evaluation of the nutritional composition (proximate analysis and profiles of fatty acids and minerals) and techno-functional properties (foaming and emulsion stability and capacity) of earthworm (Eisenia andrei, sourced in New Zealand) powder (EAP) were investigated. Lipid nutritional indices, ω6/ω3, atherogenicity index, thrombogenicity index, hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic acid ratio, and health-promoting index of EAP lipids are also reported. The protein, fat, and carbohydrate contents of EAP were found to be 53.75%, 19.30%, and 23.26% DW, respectively. The mineral profile obtained for the EAP consisted of 11 essential minerals, 23 non-essential minerals, and 4 heavy metals. The most abundant essential minerals were potassium (8220 mg·kg-1 DW), phosphorus (8220 mg·kg-1 DW), magnesium (744.7 mg·kg-1 DW), calcium (2396.7 mg·kg-1 DW), iron (244.7 mg·kg-1 DW), and manganese (25.6 mg·kg-1 DW). Toxic metals such as vanadium (0.2 mg·kg-1 DW), lead (0.2 mg·kg-1 DW), cadmium (2.2 mg·kg-1 DW), and arsenic (2.3 mg·kg-1 DW) were found in EAP, which pose safety considerations. Lauric acid (20.3% FA), myristoleic acid (11.20% FA), and linoleic acid (7.96% FA) were the most abundant saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids, respectively. The lipid nutritional indices, such as IT and ω-6/ω-3, of E. andrei were within limits considered to enhance human health. A protein extract derived from EAP (EAPPE), obtained by alkaline solubilisation and pH precipitation, exhibited an isoelectric pH of ~5. The total essential amino acid content and essential amino acid index of EAPPE were 373.3 mg·g-1 and 1.36 mg·g-1 protein, respectively. Techno-functional analysis of EAPPE indicated a high foaming capacity (83.3%) and emulsion stability (88.8% after 60 min). Heat coagulation of EAPPE was greater at pH 7.0 (12.6%) compared with pH 5.0 (4.83%), corroborating the pH-solubility profile and relatively high surface hydrophobicity (1061.0). These findings demonstrate the potential of EAP and EAPPE as nutrient-rich and functional ingredients suitable as alternative food and feed material. The presence of heavy metals, however, should be carefully considered.

Antioxidants and Quality Changes of Thermally Processed Purple Corn (Zea mays L.) Milk Fortified with Low Sucrose Content during Cold Storage.

Purple corn kernels were subjected to boiling and steaming times of 5-15 min to extract purple corn milk (PCM). Pasteurized and unpasteurized PCM samples were investigated for changes in anthocyanins, antioxidants, and physicochemical properties. Anthocyanins, total phenolics, antioxidant activity, color and viscosity values showed promising results in pasteurized PCM samples extracted from kernels steamed for 5 min (PPCM-S5) compared to other samples (p ≤ 0.05). Changes in L*, a* and b* values, total phenolics and DPPH activity were lowered in PPCM-S5 samples with higher retention of anthocyanins compared to the PCM extracted from boiled kernels (p ≤ 0.05). PCM extracted from 5 min steamed kernels fortified with 4% sucrose (PCM5-S4) after pasteurization revealed the lowest changes in color, pH, total soluble solid and viscosity during 12 days of storage at 4 °C compared to the unpasteurized PCM without sucrose and pasteurized PCM fortified with 6% sucrose. Additionally, pasteurized PCM5-S4 samples marked the highest anthocyanins, total phenolics and antioxidant activity during storage. Microbial load was lowest in pasteurized PCM5-S4 samples stored at 4 °C for 12 days. However, coliforms, yeast or mold and Escherichia coli were not present in the thermally processed PCM samples. The highest sensory scores were obtained in PCM5-S4 at day 12 of storage compared to PCM without any treatment. Therefore, pasteurized PCM extracted from 5 min steamed purple corn kernels retained bioactivity along with 4% sucrose fortification resulted in higher sensory acceptability. As a consequence the shelf-life of PCM5-S4 sample was extended up to 12 days at 4 °C.

Physicochemical Characteristics, Techno-Functionalities, and Amino Acid Profile of Prionoplus reticularis (Huhu) Larvae and Pupae Protein Extracts.

The amino acid profile, techno-functionalities (foaming stability/capacity, emulsion stability/capacity, solubility, and coagulation), and physicochemical characteristics (colour, particle size, surface hydrophobicity, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and differential scanning calorimetry) of protein extracts (PE) obtained from Prionoplus reticularis (Huhu grub) larvae (HLPE) and pupae (HPPE) were investigated. Total essential amino acid contents of 386.7 and 411.7 mg/g protein were observed in HLPE and HPPE, respectively. The essential amino acid index (EAAI) was 3.3 and 3.4 for HLPE and HPPE, respectively, demonstrating their nutritional equivalence. A unique nitrogen-to-protein conversion constant, k, and the corresponding protein content of the extracts were 6.1 and 6.4 and 72.1% and 76.5%, respectively. HLPE (37.1 J/g) had a lower enthalpy than HPPE (54.1 J/g). HPPE (1% w/v) exhibited a foaming capacity of 50.7%, which was higher than that of HLPE (41.7%) at 150 min. The foaming stability was 75.3% for HLPE and 73.1% for HPPE after 120 min. Both protein extracts (1% w/v) had emulsifying capacities that were 96.8% stable after 60 min. Therefore, protein extracts from Huhu larvae and pupae are of a good nutritional quality (based on their EAAI) and have techno-functional properties, such as foaming and emulsification, that afford them potential for certain food technology applications.

Combined Effect of Drying Temperature and Varied Gelatin Concentration on Physicochemical and Antioxidant Properties of Ginger Oil Incorporated Chitosan Based Edible Films.

In the present work, ginger essential oil (GEO) loaded chitosan (CS) based films incorporated with varying concentrations of gelatin (GE) were fabricated and dried at different conditions (25 °C and 45 °C). The physio-chemical, mechanical and antioxidant potential of the films were determined. Films dried at 45 °C showed better physical attributes and less thickness, swelling degree (SD), moisture content, water vapor permeability (WVP), more transparency, and better mechanical characteristics. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) revealed the chemical composition and interaction between the functional groups of the film components. X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) findings revealed that samples dried at 45 °C had more crystalline structure, were thermally stable, and smoother. Antioxidant results showed that films dried at low temperature showed comparatively more (p < 0.0001) antioxidant activity. Additionally, an increase in gelatin concentration improved the tensile strength and swelling factor (p < 0.05), however, had no significant impact on other parameters. The overall results suggested better characteristics of GEO-loaded CS-GE based edible films when dried at 45 °C.

The effect of pulsed electric fields on the extracted total lipid yield and the lipidomic profile of hoki roe.

The effect of pulsed electric fields (PEF) at different field strengths (0.62, 1.25, 1.875 kV/cm) and frequencies (25, 50, 100 Hz) on total lipid extraction from hoki roe was investigated, along with the lipidomic profile (total lipid, phospholipid, fatty acid, phospholipid composition, and positional distribution of EPA and DHA). High PEF input (112 kJ/kg, 1.875 kV/cm and 100 Hz) yielded the highest total lipid (16.2% wet weight (WW)), and phospholipid (46 µmol/g WW) contents, without affecting n-3 fatty acid content (32%), and generated the highest LDPG, LPE, LPS and LPC contents (1.1, 0.41, 6.13 and 2.15 µmol/g WW, respectively). However, this PEF treatment resulted in sn-2 phospholipid EPA and DHA to be relocated to the sn-1,3 positions. Despite the good yield of n-3 fatty acids and PL, high PEF intensity treatment was found to result in negative structural changes in hoki roe lipids.

Clove Polyphenolic Compounds Improve the Microbiological Status, Lipid Stability, and Sensory Attributes of Beef Burgers during Cold Storage.

This study investigated the phenolic composition of clove powder extract (CPE), determined by high-pressure liquid chromatography, as well as the effect of the clove powder (CP) concentration (0, 2, 4, and 6%) on the quality of beef burgers during 21 days of cold storage at 4 °C. The CPE contained a high amount of total phenolic content (455.8 mg Gallic acid equivalent/g) and total flavonoid content (100.4 mg catechin equivalent/g), and it exhibited high DPPH antioxidant scavenging activity (83.9%). Gallic acid, catechol, and protocatechuic acid were the highest phenolic acids (762.6, 635.8, and 544.9 mg/100 g, respectively), and quercetin and catechin were the highest flavonoid acids (1703.1 and 1065.1 mg/100 g, respectively). Additionally, the CPE inhibited the growth of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria effectively at 100 µg/disc. The addition of the CP had no discernible influence on the pH of the meat patties. The addition of CP at 4 and 6% increased the phenolic content and antioxidant activity of the beef patties, which consequently resulted in reduced lipid oxidation and microbial spoilage throughout the storage period. Furthermore, the CP significantly (p ≤ 0.05) improved the beef burger cooking characteristics (cooking yield, fat retention, moisture retention, and shrinkage). Additionally, the sensory acceptability was higher (p ≤ 0.05) for the burgers that contained 2% and 4% CP compared with the other treatments. In conclusion, the bioactive compounds in CP can extend the shelf life and improve the safety of beef burgers.

Use of fungal and bacterial protease preparations to enhance extraction of lipid from fish roe: Effect on lipidomic profile of extracted oil.

The present study investigated the hydrolysis of protein in hoki roe homogenate using a HT (bacterial), a FP-II (fungal) protease preparations and Alcalase (bacterial) to enhance lipid yield extraction. The degree of hydrolysis was determined at various pH, temperature and time using casein and hoki roe. Total lipid extraction and lipidomic analysis was carried out following proteolysis of hoki roe homogenate. The degree of hydrolysis and SDS-PAGE revealed that the hydrolytic capability of Alcalase was better than HT and FPII. The total extracted lipid yield was better following hydrolysis with Alcalase (19.29 %), compared to HT (18.29 %) and FPII (18.33 %). However, the total phospholipid (PL) and n-3 fatty acid yields were better from HT hydrolysed hoki roe homogenate (PL = 30.7 µmol/g; n-3 = 10.5 %), compared to Alcalase (PL = 22 µmol/g; n-3 = 5.95 %). Overall, this study indicates that HT protease preparation hydrolysis of fish roe homogenate can both enhance lipid extraction and retain lipid quality.

Effect of Pulsed Electric Fields on the Lipidomic Profile of Lipid Extracted from Hoki Fish Male Gonad.

Processing of hoki, a commercially important fish species, generates substantial quantities of co-products, including male gonad, which contains valuable lipids, such as phospholipids, that could be recovered and utilised. Hoki fish male gonads (HMG) were subjected to pulsed electric fields (PEF) treatment at varying field strengths (0.625, 1.25, and 1.875 kV/cm) and frequencies (25, 50, and 100 Hz), at a fixed pulse width of 20 µs. The total lipid was extracted using an ethanol-hexane-based (ETHEX) extraction method, and the phospholipid and fatty acid compositions were determined using 31P NMR and GC-FID, respectively. The total lipid yield was increased from 4.1% to 6.7% by a relatively mild PEF pre-treatment at a field strength of 1.25 kV/cm and frequency of 50 Hz. A higher amount of EPA (8.2%), DPA (2.7%), and DHA (35.7%) were obtained by that treatment, compared to both un-heated (EPA: 8%; DPA: 2.5%; DHA: 35.2%) and heat-treated controls (EPA: 7.9%; DPA: 2.5%; DHA: 34%). No significant changes to the content of the major phospholipids were observed. PEF pre-treatment under mild conditions has potential for improving the total lipid yield extracted from fish male gonad.

Preparation and Physiochemical Characterization of Bitter Orange Oil Loaded Sodium Alginate and Casein Based Edible Films.

Biopolymers-based composite edible films are gaining interest in the food packaging industry due to their sustainable nature and diverse biological activities. In the current study, we used sodium alginate (SA) and casein (CA) for the fabrication of composite film using the casting method. We also added orange oil to the edible film and assessed its impact on the biological, chemical, physical, and barrier properties of the films. The fabricated films were analyzed using X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). It was observed that CA-SA films loaded with 1.5% OEO had better visual attributes, and a further increase in oil concentration was not found to be as favorable. Mechanical assessment of the films revealed that CA-SA-OEO (1.5%) film showed lower puncture deformation and higher puncture force values. XRD data showed that all samples exhibited peaks at similar positions (21° of 2θ) with different intensities. In FTIR analysis, characteristic peaks of the film components (sodium alginate, casein, and orange oil) were reported at corresponding positions. The thermal stability of films was enhanced after the addition of the OEO (1.5%), however, a greater increase in OEO caused a decrease in the thermal stability, observed during TGA analysis. Moreover, the surface of the blank CA-SA film (FL1) was found to be rough (with cracks) compared to CA-SA films (FL2) containing 1.5% OEO. Additionally, FL2 was found to be relatively better than the other samples in terms of swelling degree (SD), thickness, water solubility (WS), oxygen permeability (OP), water vapor permeability (WVP), moisture content (MC), and transparency (T).

Lipidomic signature of Pacific lean fish species head and skin using gas chromatography and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.

The present study investigated the lipid profile (fatty acid profile, positional distribution of n-3 fatty acids and phospholipid content) of head and skin of three lean fishes (gurnard, ribaldo and snapper). Gurnard head (GH) and snapper head (SnH) were found to contain a higher amount of total lipid (5.9-6.3%) than other samples (1.2-3.9%) including a considerable amount of bioactive n-3 fatty acids such as EPA (GH = 9.05%; SnH = 5.06%), DPA (GH = 2.78% ; SnH = 2.93%) and DHA (GH = 12.8% ; SnH = 7.72%) in the polar lipid fraction. DHA was found to predominate in the sn-2 position for gurnard head and snapper head. Partial least squares discriminant analysis showed that both gurnard and snapper samples were positively correlated with the n-3 fatty acids (EPA, DPA and DHA). Gurnard and snapper head had higher phospholipid content than the skin. Therefore, among the studied samples, GH and SnH are the best source of bioactive n-3 phospholipids.